カシミール料理

カシミール料理は、インドのジャンムー・カシミール連邦直轄領にあるカシミール渓谷のカシミール人に伝わる伝統的な料理法を指す。この料理は、中央アジアやインド亜大陸の近隣地域から強い影響を受けている。米は古代からカシミール地方の主食であった。カシミール語で「パンとバター」に相当する言葉は「ハーク・バッテ」（青菜と米）である。

カシミール料理は一般的に肉が多めである。この地域は、インド亜大陸で一人当たりのマトン消費量が最も多い。カシミール料理の大部分では、パンは食事の一部ではない。パンは通常、朝または夕方の紅茶と一緒にのみ食べられる。典型的なカシミール料理は、たっぷりの米（約250g）、マトン（100g）、油で調理された野菜（約100g、主に青菜）、そしてヨーグルト（50〜250g）で構成される。

イスラム教徒による野菜、羊肉、自家製チーズ（パニール）、豆類の調理法は、イスラム教徒がアサフェティダの代わりにタマネギ、ニンニク、エシャロットを使用することを除けば、パンディットのものと類似している。パンディットは肉に子羊または羊を選ぶのに対し、イスラム教徒はヤギを好む。カシミール語で「マワル」と呼ばれるケイトウの花は、特定の料理に使用される赤い食用色素を作るために茹でられる。カシミール・パンディット料理では、穏やかな辛味のあるカシミール産赤唐辛子の粉末を香辛料として使用し、また、ラタンジョットをローガン・ジョシュのような特定の料理に色を付けるために用いる。カシミール・イスラム料理では、唐辛子の使用量は控えめで、大量の食事では辛い料理を避ける。カシミール・イスラム料理では野菜カレーが一般的で、肉は伝統的に高価な贅沢品とされている。肉は米、少量の野菜、サラダと共にイード・アル＝フィトルのような特別な行事で調理される。

世界的な人気と都市への拡大

カシミール料理は世界中で高く評価されており、ローガン・ジョシュ、グシュタバ、ヤクニ、カフワといった代表的な料理が世界中のグルメメニューに登場している。ロンドンやドバイのフードフェスティバルからニューヨークやトロントの高級レストランまで、カシミールの豊かで香り高い風味は国際的な人々に受け入れられている。

インド国内では、カシミール料理は主要な大都市で存在感を増している。デリー、ムンバイ、ベンガルール、ハイデラバードには高級カシミール料理レストランが開店し、ディアスポラや本格的な地方料理を求める食通の両方に対応している。これらの店は、カシミール人コミュニティのメンバーが経営しているか、ワズワーンを専門とするシェフが監修していることが多く、この地域のユニークな美食の伝統を保存し、促進するのに役立っている。

この成長は、料理インフルエンサー、YouTubeのシェフ、そしてカシミール料理の複雑な調理法と文化的意義を紹介するキュレーションされたポップアップイベントによってさらに支えられている。

カシミール料理の歴史

マハーバーラタの時代から紀元前516年のダレイオスによるカシミール（ガンダーラの一部）のイラン侵攻、シュリーナガルを建設したマウリヤ朝、クシャーナ朝、そして1398年のティムールによるカシミール侵攻まで、カシミール人の文化と料理は、南アジア、ペルシア、中央アジアの料理に、現地の革新と食材の利用可能性が混ざり合ったものと関連付けられている。Kababという用語はアラビア語起源、kormaはトルコ語のルーツを持ち、rogan josh、yakhaen、ab gosht、riste、goshtabhはペルシア語源である。

初期史

太古の昔、カシミール渓谷は広大な山岳湖であったという伝説がある。土壌には淡水魚や化石カキの残骸が含まれ、黒いクワイの殻は渓谷の標高457メートル上方の地中に埋められた層から見つかることがある。

旧石器時代

カシミールと外界との融合の過程は、イランからの原始的な蛇と火の崇拝の輸入から始まった。旧石器時代以来、蛇は崇拝され、来世への備えとして昆虫を供えて墓に埋葬された。さらに、蛇や他の動物に敬意を表して、聖地や墓に穀物を撒いた。2005年にDr. Mamtaz Yatooによって発見されたボンマイ・ソポレ考古学遺跡からは、カシミールで発見された初の先史時代の岩石彫刻が確認されている。この後期旧石器時代の彫刻は、先史時代の人々の狩猟と獲物との関わりを描いている。パハルガムのオベラ渓谷における考古学者による最近の調査では、動物を捕獲するために使用された片刃の石器を含む、旧石器時代の石器が発見されている。

新石器文化

新石器時代に続く巨石文化以前から、小麦、大麦、レンズ豆の栽培の証拠がある。紀元前2500年以降、カシミールのカシム・バーグでは、大量の穀物貯蔵や小麦、大麦、アワの穂軸の形で、農業の明確な証拠が発見されている。カシミール渓谷には、おそらく気候が暖かくなった紀元前3000年という早い時期にさかのぼる、いわゆる北部新石器時代の複数の遺跡がある。ペートプーラン・テンの遺跡からは、この初期集団のより広い接触網と、中央アジアの山々を越えてアワが著しく深く移行したことが示唆されている。ペートプーラン・タンのレンズ豆のサンプルから得られた年代範囲は、この地域で最も初期に年代測定された豆類作物の一つである（紀元前約2700年）。渓谷は標高的には中央アジアの他の山間部の農牧地帯に匹敵するが、カシミールはわずかに緯度が低いため、より高緯度で北方の地域での栽培を可能にする形質の必須な遺伝子導入なしに作物を栽培できる地理的限界として渓谷が存在していた。

シュリーナガル地区にあるブルザホームの新石器時代遺跡で回収された道具の範囲は、当時の人々が耕作具の知識を持つ熟練した狩人であったことを示している。石の炉は、穴の入り口付近の地表で発見されている。II期（土器新石器時代）の構造物からは、中空の台座を持つ皿と球状の土器が発見されている。湾曲した刃を持つ長方形の収穫具も回収されている。新石器時代の人々の芸術的な行動は、人間、犬、太陽の経路図が描かれた狩猟の場面で確認されている。長方形の断面を持つ乳鉢と乳棒は、現在のカシミール人が使用しているものと同じ火山岩で作られている。レンズ豆の存在は、ブルザホームの人々が中央アジアと広範な接触を持っていたことを説明している。それを扱うための2つの穴を持つ収穫具（石製と骨製）は、中国との接触を示している。

シュリーナガルから南西41kmにあるグフクラル新石器時代遺跡では、入植者が野生動物の狩猟と動物の家畜化に従事していたことが考古学者によって確認されている。当時知られていた動物は、野生のヒツジ、野生のヤギ、野生のウシ、アカシカ、オオカミ、ヒマラヤアイベックス、クマであった。食料（肉と穀物の両方）のローストは、住居の穴の中で炉や暖炉が見つからなかったため、屋外でのみ行われた。突き刺し具は、動物が殺され皮を剥がれた後、肉に切り込みを入れたり、肉を裂いたりするために使用され、スクレーパーは肉から脂肪を削り取るために使用された。新石器時代の居住のフェーズIBでは、ウシや一般的なエンドウ豆などの新たな追加が見られた。ブタ（Sus scrofa）と魚は後期新石器時代に登場した。ノウサギ（Lepus）、ハリネズミ、齧歯動物、ビーバーの骨も回収されている。

バラームラから東に7キロの地点にあるカニスプールでエンマー小麦（Triticum dicoccum）作物が存在することに基づいて、ハラッパ人と新石器時代のカシミールとの接触が示唆されている。紀元前8世紀頃のアーリア人のカシミールへの移住により、火の崇拝の習慣は、調理された米の男根の象徴のような慣習を通じて、カシミールの生来の宗教文化的構造に組み込まれた。地元の儀式であるvayukは、イラン式のFarvadinに再び近い。月の特別な日には、カシミールのイスラム教徒は故人を偲び、墓を訪れ、米のパンを配る。

インド・ギリシャ時代とクシャーナ時代

ビジベハラの北にあるセムタンからは、インド・ギリシャ時代（紀元前200年～紀元1世紀）の土製のthalis（鍋）が発見されている。Handis（金属製の鍋）、平皿、高台付きの杯、縁のある鉢が、ハーワン、カニシュプール、セムタンの発掘現場から多数報告されている。カニシュプールでは調理鍋が発見されている。カニシカの硬貨を含む多数のクシャーナ朝の硬貨がカシミール渓谷から回収されており、ヴィマの祭壇で犠牲を捧げる王のモチーフを模倣し続けている。

クシャーナ時代は二毛作パターンが特徴であり、新石器時代以降の人口減少からの回復に伴う農業慣行の変化を示唆している。Vitis vinifera（ブドウ）、Emblica officinalis（インドスグリ）、Ziziphus nummularia（野生のナツメ）、Juglans regia（クルミ）、Prunus amygdalus（アーモンド）の発見は、園芸と採集が居住者の食生活において重要な役割を果たしていたことを示唆している。カニシュプール出土のクシャーナ時代の遺物はオオムギが主体であるのに対し、小麦がより一般的なセムタンとは対照的である。

クシャーナ朝の歴史は、クシャーナ朝の支配者時代（紀元1世紀～紀元450年）からローマとカシミールの間に接触があったことを伝えている。カシミールはギルギットとヤシン渓谷を経由してタシュクルガンで南のシルクロードに接続されていた。ローマへの主要な輸出品はサフランとドルミア・コスタス（kutha）であった。ドルミア・コスタスはローマで様々な目的で使用され、その中には食品の香り付けやワインの調味も含まれていた。

ヒンドゥー王朝

カシミールのカルコータ朝と中国の唐（618年～907年）朝廷の間には軍事的な接触があった。中国の唐王朝がチベット軍を撃破し、722年10月に小パルールに入った際、カシミールはギルギット渓谷に駐留する中国軍を維持するために不可欠な農業物資を提供したとされている。

カシミール・スルターン朝（1346年～1580年代）

イスラム教がアラビアから直接カシミールに伝わったわけではないため、自然とイランと中央アジアの混合的な影響を帯びていた。同様に、カシミール・ヒンドゥー教徒は、インドの正統派ヒンドゥー教徒を驚かせたであろうことを行っていた。彼らはイスラム教徒が持ってきた水を飲み、イスラム教徒の船で調理された食物を食べ、イスラム教徒の乳母が子供に授乳することも許されていた。そのため、リシ信仰は、菜食主義、動物への不傷害、食物におけるニンニクとタマネギの使用の abstention を通じてヒンドゥー教と同一視された。伝説によると、ヌンド・リシは乾燥したタンポポの葉を食べて生活し、ラル・デッドは厳格な菜食主義を説き、実践した。

さらに、カシミール最後の主権者であるユースフ・シャー・チャクが1586年にアクバル皇帝と象徴的な主権を認める条約に署名した際、その条件の一つは、造幣所、サフラン、狩猟が帝国管理下に置かれることであった。

ムガル帝国時代（1580年代～1750年代）

シュリーナガルでは、貧しい人々の食事はギー、牛乳、牛肉、タマネギ、ワイン、ピクルス、酢で作られていた。米、魚、そして多数の野菜がムガル時代には主食であった。バターや脂肪は、寒い環境のため危険であると考えられていたため、料理にはあまり使われなかった。南カシミールの人々は川の水を飲まなかった。彼らは温かく、心地よく、消化しやすいダル湖の水を飲んでいた。

1635年から1636年にかけて、シャー・ジャハーンの治世中に、マイシュマでシーア派とスンニ派の両派の集団が桑の実を食べていた際、一部がムハンマドに対して不適切な言葉を使ったと告発され、激しい紛争が勃発した。1641年には前例のない洪水とその後の飢饉により村々は荒廃した。シャー・ジャハーンはシュリーナガルの困窮者に分配するため、スベダールのタルビヤット・ハーンに3万ルピーを送り、また、渓谷に5つの施設を開設して困窮者に無料で食料を提供することを命じた。

シーク教徒の支配（1819年～1846年）

牛の屠殺は死刑に処せられる犯罪と宣告され、牛を殺した罪で告発された多くの人々が公開処刑された。支配者の近視眼的な政策により、カシミールは深刻な農業危機に見舞われた。シーク教徒の支配者は、稲作生産高の半分を政府の分け前として課した。カシミールの人口は1822年～1823年の80万人から1835年には12万人に減少した。

ドグラ家の支配（1846年～1947年）

粗い米とhaakhが主食であった。不均一な地形や灌漑施設の不足により稲作が制限されていた地域では、小麦とトウモロコシが主な食料であった。カシミールの一部の地域では、singhara（菱の実）などの水生植物を食料としていた。

カシミール産のリンゴは、クーリーによって背負われ、12日間かけてイギリス領インドのラーワルピンディーまで運ばれた。

1878年～79年の飢饉は壊滅的であった。また、飢えに駆られた人々が魚を捕獲して食べることは、マハラジャ・ランビール・シングの治世中の法令によって違法とされた。しばしば、牛を殺した者は油で煮られ、公共の場所の棒に固定されたフックに吊るされた。人々は荒れ地を所有する権利を持たず、村人が持っていた唯一の権利は、そのような土地に木を植えることができ、土地ではなく木の所有者となることであった。牛乳とバターは、役人によってgujjars（遊牧民の牧夫）からしばしば無償で奪われた。

古代カシミール文献に登場する食品

古代カシミールの聖典・年代記・旅行者の記録に言及されている食品には以下のようなものがある:

米 - 飢饉時には他国から輸入することも可能だった。パタンジャリの『マハバシャ』によれば、紀元前150年頃にはすでに渓谷で米が栽培されていたことが明らかになっている。スルタン・ザイン＝ウル＝アビディンはダル湖の水をマール運河に引き込み、それをシャディプルまで延長し、ジェーラム川とインダス川の合流点で排出させた。これらの灌漑工事と広大な地域の耕作への開拓により、カシミールは米生産において自給自足となった。地元の人々はデウスールの熱水を神聖なものと考え、何かの事業が成功するかどうかを知りたいときは、土製の器に米を入れ、水が入らないように口をしっかり閉じ、それを聖なる泉に投げ入れるべきだと言った。もし浮き上がってきた米が茹でられていれば幸運な前兆と見なされ、そうでなければ不吉とされた。
ピラウ - 黄色いピラウ、黒いピラウ、ショラ・ピラウなど。
ビカバッタ - 米、ヤギの脂、水で構成される料理。
砂糖とサトウキビを混ぜた米
パン - 17世紀初頭までは、naan/tsoetを食べる習慣はなかった。
牛乳 - 牛乳と恐らく水牛乳が消費されていた。
バター
イチゴ - イングランドの最高級品と競えるほどだった。
黄色いラズベリー
マスクメロン - アクバルの許可により、作物は後にカシミールから輸入された。
グアバ - カシミールのグアバはジャハーンギールによって「並」と評価された。
モモ - 7月に熟した。
その他の様々な果物 - （リンゴ、クラブアップル、ナシ、モモ、アンズ、サクランボ、クワ、メロン、スイカ、グリーンプラム、グーズベリー、カラント、ラズベリー、サワーチェリー）。
様々な野菜 - （赤カブ、ワイルドパースニップ、ラディッシュ）。
ルバーブ（pambahak） - カシミールを取り囲む山々で育った。ヒンドゥー教徒もイスラム教徒も茎を好んだ。
カブ - ハリプールのカブ（gogjee）は渓谷で最高のものと言われた。
ニンジン - ニンジン（gazar）はイスラム教徒の住民に食べられたが、ヒンドゥー教徒には食べられなかった。
新ジャガイモ
リーキ - リーキ（gaudapraan）は渓谷のヒンドゥー教徒には食べられなかった。
アーティチョーク
アスパラガス - 太い茎で。
レタス
トマト - 真紅色。
ディムブ - カシミールのダル湖とアンチャル湖でのみ見られる野菜。
カシミールの肉屋（1900年頃）
生肉 - 結婚式の儀式に関連して動物の犠牲が行われた。
雄羊の肉 - 肉（mesa）は一般的に揚げられ、時には香辛料が効かせてあった。ナンディプルのマトンはカシミールで最高級と言われた。
ヨーグルトで調理された肉
アヒル
ハト
牛肉 - カシミールの神秘家ヌンド・リシ、またはシェイク・ヌール・ウド・ディン・ワリは、牛肉（moshi）を食べてから人食い鬼の貪欲だと不平を言う説教師に対する軽蔑を彼のshruksの一つで表明した。スルタン・ギヤス＝ウド＝ディン・ザイン＝ウル＝アビディンは、ヒンドゥー教徒の宗教的感情に配慮し、州での牛の屠殺を禁止していた。
馬肉 - カシミールでは好んで食べられた。
豚肉 - 11世紀には、家畜のブタ（gramya sukara）がカシミールで何ら問題なく食べられていた。ブルザホームの試掘では、ブタの顎の断片が発見されている。
家禽 - ロラブ渓谷は最高品質の家禽で有名だった。カポンの飼育もカシミール人には知られていた。
チキンスープ（shurbaは文字通り塩味の水という意味で、baは水を表すaabの逆）。
その他の食用鳥
犬肉 - ドム系の民族によって調理された。
ハンドゥヒツジ - 繊細で甘い風味があり、栄養価が高かった。
雄ジカ - ウーラー湖で追い詰められた。
網脂 - インドの他の地域でghee（澄ましバター）の代わりに、動物の脂の献物が犠牲の火に供えられた。
コイ - クセーメンドラの『サマヤ・マートリカ』に言及されている。
魚のスープ - 女性に夢中の男性が媚薬的な活力を維持するために食べた。
タイムズ・オブ・インディアのシリーズより、1930年のカシミール人女性の画像。カシミール人女性は色白で、明るいミルクとサフランの頬を持つと認識されており、ヨーロッパの旅行者によってしばしば欲望の対象として描かれた。
マス。
ダニューブサーモン
鶏（kukkuta） - カシミール人のお気に入りの料理は、鶏とナスを一緒に調理することだった。
蜂蜜
ゆで卵 - 卵はギルギットと小チベット（ラダック）から運ばれてきた。そこではより豊富に入手できた。
ピルチャム - オムレツのような調理法。
マスラ - レンズ豆の一種。
サムドガ - ムング豆。米とsamudgaだけを食べることはケチだと知られていた。
その他の豆類 - （エンドウ豆やソラマメを含む）。
パルパタまたはパパラ - 現代のpapad。豆類から作られる別の種類の食品。
クシラ（キール） - 牛乳で煮た米。
マチャマ - 米、野菜、レーズン、着色料、砂糖からなるカシミール人が食べる料理。
クルミ - 飢饉時にshali米が高価になったため食べられた。
ピスタチオ
サトウキビ - マータンド周辺の土地にはこの作物が植えられていた。
ブドウ - 玄奘三蔵によれば、インドではカシミールでのみ栽培されており、カルハナによれば天国でも珍しかった。ペルシアの作家アブル・ファズルは豊富にあると考えたが、より上質なものは珍しかった。ウォルター・R・ローレンスはライプールの州立ブドウ園の白ブドウと赤ブドウを称賛した。外国品種では、husainiとfakhri品種はホラサン産で、ペルシアで最高とされた。
未熟なブドウ（kur） - カシミール人はそれで優れた酢を作った。
ニンニク - カルハナによれば、それを食べた何人かのBrahmanaは追放された。ニンニクとタマネギは古代カシミールでは媚薬と考えられていた。
ザクロ - 19世紀後半にはすでに豊富に存在していた。
ホーリーバジル
塩 - 貴重品であり、クセーメンドラによれば裕福な者だけが消費した。カシミールの市場では2種類の塩が見られた。パンジャブ産の岩塩と、ラダック産のbota nunと呼ばれる粉塩。
コング（カシミール産サフラン）、GIタグ。
サフラン - 歴史家は、ペルシアがカシミールを征服した後、ペルシアのサフランの球茎がカシミールの土壌に移植されたと示唆している。最初の収穫は紀元前500年以前のいずれかの時期に行われた。中国の旅行者、玄奘三蔵は彼の『インド旅行記』（631年）の中で、カシミールの国では秋の祭りにおいて雄牛の首を飾るためにサフランの花が長らく使用されていたと述べている。ハルシャの『ラトナーヴァリー』にはカシミール産サフランへの言及がある。仏教の伝統では、仏陀の弟子アーナンダの弟子または仲間であるマディヤンディーナがカシミールにサフランクロッカスを導入したと主張している。カシミールの詩人ビルハナは彼の『ヴィクラマンカ・チャリタム』の中で、カシミールでのサフラン栽培は聖なる泉であるタクシャカ・ナーガに由来すると述べている。一般的な神話では、ナーガの首長（水の神）が目の病気にかかり、パドマプル（パンポール）のvaidyaによって治されたという話がある。感謝の気持ちとして、ナーガは彼にサフランの球根を与え、こうして地元の人々が栽培を始めた。クセーメンドラは11世紀の風刺作品『サマヤマートリカ』の中で、商人がサフランの取引で多くを稼いでいたことに言及している。カウラの伝統では、戦士のためにサフランを使った儀式が行われた。ペルシアの歴史家フィリシュタ（1612年）は、カシミールのサフランが特に優れていたと述べている。ジャハーンギール（1605年～27年）の時代には、年間収穫量は18.5トンで、世界のどこよりも多かった。
澄ましバター - ランプはギーで作られた。それは訪問販売人が一軒一軒回って販売していた。
ドゥードパトリのマスタード畑。マスタードオイルはクルミ油に取って代わって以来、カシミール料理の非常に重要な一部となっている。
油 - 200年以上前に建設された木製の油圧搾機がカシミールで稼働している。1940年代半ばまで、シュリーナガルには16の製油所が稼働していた。昔はBote Chireと呼ばれる大量の乾燥アンズがラダックからカシミールに輸入され、カシミールの油圧搾機でその種子から油が搾り取られた。菜種油は食用に最適とされ、クルミ油やアーモンド油も使用された。19世紀から20世紀にかけて、カシミールではマスタードの栽培が大幅に増加し、クルミ油の使用は大幅に減少した。
金粉
ヨーグルト
半熟の大麦
大麦から作られたパン（apupa）とケーキ（pistaka） - 1年の特定の日は、大麦が畑で熟する時期の祭りとして祝われた。
ベリナグの湧水。
湧水 - コカルナグの湧水は空腹を満たし、食欲を回復させると言われた。アッチバル近郊の泉は、その冷たさ、透明度、爽やかな品質においてほとんど比類がなかった。
お茶 - 中国領タタールとチベットを横断するキャラバンによってカシミールにもたらされた。
ビール - カシミールの博学者アビナヴァグプタにとって、アルコールはシヴァの外的本質であった。アルコールなしには、喜びも解放もなかった。飲酒はバラモンのsautramani犠牲、戦士の大きな戦いの際、農民の農業の際、大きな家族の祝賀、息子の誕生の際、結婚や友人の集まりの際、そして奴隷の火葬儀式の終了時に認められている。彼の解説者ジャヤラタにとって、実践者はある種のbhairavicな偉大さのために飲むべきであり、貪欲のために縛られた動物のように飲むべきではない。最高の飲み物は常にあり、平均的な価値の飲み物は節目に、最悪の飲み物は月に一度だけであり、一ヶ月を超えると彼は縛られた動物になる。ホップもカシミールで育ち、原料が優れた液体に加工される工場が近くにあった。
小麦ビール
ミード（蜂蜜酒）
ラム酒 - 糖蜜から作られた。
ワイン - カシミール語でmasと呼ばれる。カシミールは、インドで唯一ブドウの果汁からワインが作られた地域であり、これは果物の不足よりもむしろその酸性度によるものとされている。ヘレニズムの影響を受けたワイン文化が紀元初期のカシミールで栄えた。1896年にフランス人アルベール・フーシェがバンディポラ県のブラール村近くで発見した、特徴的なガンダーラ様式のラクシュミー女神像のビーズリングには、ブドウの房と葉が見られる。2世紀前半の仏教文献である『ムラサルヴァスティヴァーダ・ヴィナヤ』には、僧侶が北西を旅し、yakṣaが彼らにブドウを贈る場面があり、それはカシミール産で、明らかに珍しいものであったと言われている。仏陀は、燃える炭で清めてから食べることができ、人々はそれからジュースやシロップを作ることもできると説明している。アビナヴァグプタにとって、ブドウから得られるアルコールは最高の輝きであった。彼は故郷カシミールのワインをmahabhairava（水銀の本質）と称賛した。ジャヤラタは、その効能がかなり限定されるという理由で、他の成分と混ぜることに注意を促している。ラリタディチャはワインにひどく酔いしれ、大臣たちに、もし自分の都市の美しさを増したいなら、アルチョン・フン族のシュリー・プラヴァラセーナ王が建設した都市プラヴァラプラを焼くべきだと告げ、彼の命令は無視できなかった。初期のスルタン朝時代には、正統派社会から強く非難されていたにもかかわらず、ワインの製造と飲酒が禁止されていなかったことを示す多くの言及がある。ヒンドゥー教の祭りでは、一般の人々もバラモン僧侶も同様に酔っ払った状態で見られるのが一般的だった。イスラム教のアルコール禁止にもかかわらず、これらの祭りに参加したイスラム教徒も自由にワインを飲んだ。ザイヌル・アビディンは節度を持って飲んだが、ハイダー・シャーは重度の酒飲みだった。シカンダル・ブトシカン、または「偶像破壊者」（1416年頃）はカシミールでのワインの販売を禁止した。在来種のブドウは一般的にポプラの根元に植えられ、50フィートまたは60フィートの高さまで伸び、豊かに実を結んだ。10月にブドウを収穫した後、春まで浅い土器に保管され、その後ワイン、酢、ブランデーの製造に用いられた。1815年、初期のワイン作家アンドレ・ジュリアンはカシミールワインをマデイラと比較した。マハラジャ・ランビール・シングはフランスのボルドーからブドウの木を導入し、1900年にカシミールを訪れたマリオーン・ドゥーティという女性は、メドックとバルザックの両方が滋養があり、味も心地よいと書いている。Anguriとqandiは歌手たちの愛飲品だった。
マイレイヤワイン - 樟脳で香り付けされたスパイシーなワインで、果物や花をベースにした天然の砂糖から作られた。
アサヴァワイン - 様々なハーブの煎じ液または冷浸液をdhataki（woodfordia fruticosa）の花で発酵させたもの。
新酒 - ヒンドゥー教徒はブドウの果汁を絞り、漉し、4、5日間太陽の下に置き、それから飲んだ。
甘口ワイン - マデイラのように。熟成とともに品質が大きく向上すると考えられた。
果実酒（madapan） - ナシ、リンゴ、クワから作られた。
ブランデー - ワインから蒸留された。
酢 - カシミール人は様々なピクルスをそれで作ったが、ジャハーンギールによれば、最高のものはニンニクだった。
小麦粉のケーキ - 上質な小麦粉は高価になることがあった。
ブドウからの蒸留酒 - 酒（mrdvika）は呪文と祝福とともに飲まれた。
チョウセンアサガオ（Thorn-Apple）からの蒸留酒
ゴマ - そこから油が抽出された。
ショウガ - ジョナラージャは彼の言葉（乏しい）を乾燥したショウガの中の水に例えている。
粗糖
肉のケーキ
魚
乾燥食品
イラの花（飲み物）
青野菜

原材料と調味料

肉

カシミールでは、鶏肉、魚、狩猟肉の他に、羊肉（成熟した羊の肉）またはヤギ肉のみが食される。羊の75%以上が交配種で、一般的にカシミールメリノと呼ばれ、肉と羊毛の両方に利用される。バッカルワール（遊牧民の牧畜民）のヤギは、肉質において世界最高級とされる珍しいカガニ種に属する。

牛肉はカシミールの町や村で消費されており、その手頃さからより多く食べられている。一部の村では、ワズワーンの宴会中、牛肉を食べる人々と羊肉を食べる人々が分けられて座る。「小さな肉」（マトン）を食べる人々は上流階級で洗練されていると見なされ、「大きな肉」（牛肉）を食べる人々は下層階級と見なされるという階級意識が存在する。北インド最大のウサギ繁殖場は、カシミールのバラムラ地区ウッサン村の6ヘクタールの土地に広がっている。一般の人々の間で、羊肉やヤギ肉の代替としてウサギ肉の消費が人気を集めている。ウサギ肉は赤身で栄養価が高く、心臓病を持つ人々も食べる。

カシミール固有のガチョウ（Kashmir Aenz）は、インドで最初にして唯一認められた家禽種である。渓谷でのガチョウの飼育は、ウォルター・R・ローレンス卿が著書『カシミール渓谷』で述べているように、古代にまで遡る。シュリーナガルでは、ガチョウは主にバトマルーとラールチョークで、村の飼育者からガチョウを買い取り、生きたまままたは屠殺して市内で販売する業者によって売られている。裕福な家庭では、ガチョウのピクルスも作られ、冬のために保存された。

魚類

1899年、ベッドフォード公爵はイギリスから1万個のマスの卵を送るのを支援したが、輸送中にすべて死滅した。翌年、スコットランドから第2便が到着した。ニジマスとブラウントラウトはカシミール渓谷によく適応し、固有種のスノウトラウトは引き続き繁栄している。地元ではalegaadとして知られ、渓谷全体の止水域と流水域の両方で見られる。アナントナグ地区だけでも137の個人養魚場があり、同地区は「インドのトラウト地区」と宣言された。

卵

カシミールはヨーロッパと類似した地理的・気候的条件を持つため、養鶏場はヨーロッパの基準に設定されている。パーマカルチャーや無耕起栽培の技術を用いて、放し飼いの卵が毎日販売されている。人々はカリンガブラウン、ヴァンラジャ、カシミールコマーシャルレイヤーなどの鶏の品種を集めて、オーガニックのブラウンエッグを定期的に供給している。カシミールダック（batook）は、渓谷のすべての地区で卵のために飼育されており、バンディポラ地区が最も多く、次いでクプワラ、バラームラ、シュリーナガルなどが続く。

カリージキジ（wan kokur）は、1回の産卵で6個から10個の卵を産み、オリーブグリーンの殻のまま半熟で、セロリソルトを軽く振りかけ、バターを塗ったトーストとともに提供するのに最適である。

穀物

カシミールの人々は、香ばしいムシュク・ブジを含む様々な種類の米を食している。この米はカシミール渓谷の高地で栽培されており、2022年2月には地理的表示（GI）タグを取得した。この炊き上がった米は独特で、味、香り、豊かな官能特性が調和している。地元でZaag Battと呼ばれるカシミール赤米は、パキスタンとの国境にあるタングダールという小さな村で栽培されている。この小さな無精米の穀物は、その優れた食感と味から求められている。2009年には、この地域の農家が初めて伝説的なバスマティ米を収穫した。

野菜

最も重要で頻繁に使われるカシミールの野菜は、haakh（コラードグリーンまたはケール）、monj Haak（コールラビ）、tsochael（ゼニアオイ）、bamchoont（マルメロ）、kral mound（ナズナ）、saze posh（タチアオイ）、nadur（レンコン）、praan（エシャロット）、aubuj（スイバ）、mawal（ケイトウ）、wushkofur（カンフル）、tila gogul（マスタード）、gor（ウォーターチェスナット）である。ダル湖の浮き野菜園は、世界で2番目に大きい卸売市場である。老若男女の男性たちが、木製のボートの上で、ふっくらとしたカボチャやヒョウタンの値段を議論しながら、タバコや水タバコを分け合っている。カシミールの水は甘く、それが野菜の味や風味に影響を与えている。販売品には、トマト、ニンジン、キュウリ、カブ、ウォーターチェスナット、葉物野菜、そして有名なnadurが含まれる。多孔質で繊維質の湖の野菜であるnadurは、伝統的なカシミールの台所においてかけがえのない食材となっている。地元の言い伝えでは、その発見は15世紀のザイヌル・アービディン(سلطان)に遡り、彼はシュリーナガル郊外のギル・サール湖でのシカラ遊覧中にこの噛みごたえのある珍味に出会ったという。また、ある人気の伝説によると、カシミールの神秘主義の聖者であるラッラ・デッドが織った糸が、暴君の義母が彼女が細すぎる糸を紡いでいると嘲笑し、あざけったときにダル湖に投げ込まれたという。これらの糸は永遠にnadurの繊維に変わったとされている。

Sun-dried vegetables, locally known as hokh syun, are consumed as fresh produce dwindles. During summer, vegetables are peeled, chopped, salted and sun-dried to preserve them for winter. The various varieties of hokh syun include dried tomatoes (ruwangun haech), dried fenugreek leaves (meeth), dried lotus stem (nadir haech), dried Iberian knapweed (kretch), dried shallot leaves (praan), dried mint (pudna), dried bottle gourd (al haech), dried turnip slices (gogji haech), dried quince (bamchount haech), dried collard greens (hoech haak) and dried spinach (hoech palak). In the Charar Sharief area of central Kashmir, dried pears, locally known as tang haech are considered a delicacy.

Shallots, known as praan, stand out, lending its unique flavour to a multitude of Kashmiri dishes, from soups and stews, to curries and kebabs. Many of Mughal Emperor Akbar's feasts in the 16th century featured shallots. Buthoo village has earned renown for producing prized organic shallots. Snow Mountain garlic, also known as Kashmiri garlic, is a rare single-clove variety of Allium sativum. The clove beneath is bright white to creamy-white color and offers a strong, pungent garlic flavour without the acidity present in other varieties.

Kashmir valley is the only place in India where asparagus grows. Until the 1960s, it was grown widely in Kashmir at Pulwama, Budgam, Rajbagh, Tangmarg and Gulmarg. As of now the area of asparagus cultivation is restricted to Tangmarg and Gulmarg.

Sugar and sweeteners

Sugarcane does not grow in Kashmir. Sugar was exclusively imported from erstwhile united Punjab up to 1947 but was among the costliest imports to Kashmir. The then Dogra government suggested cultivating sugar maple and beetroot sugar but it could not materialise. In the past, when sugar was not imported, people used honey. Delicate nectar of the acacia flowers makes for honey in Tral, Verinag and other locations. Sidr honey considered one of the most distinguished types of honey in the world, is obtained from Sidr (jujube) trees in the Kashmir Valley.

Fruits

Kashmiri apple is famous for its juiciness and distinct flavour as well. In 2019 alone, Kashmir produced over 1.9 million metric tonnes of apples, the highest among Indian states. Further, Kashmir accounts for 90% of India's walnut production. Kashmiri walnuts are a great source of nutrients and widely in demand across the globe. Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. Many years ago, walnut oil used to be a medium of cooking and imparted a sweeter and nuttier flavour to dishes.

Muhammad Quli Afshar brought cherries from Kabul and planted them during Akbar's time. Mishri variety of cherry is famous in Kashmir and sweeter than other varieties. They are loaded with minerals, vitamins and plant compounds. The exotic berries from Kashmir are sweet and sour mulberry (tuell and shah-tuell), raspberry (chhanchh), barberry (kaawducchh) and red berry (haapat maewaa). Gassu area on the Srinagar outskirts is known for strawberry (istaber) harvesting.

Orange cultivation for commercial purposes was introduced a few decades before in the Urossa village in Uri. The climate and soil is relatively warmer than the rest of Kashmir and conducive for the crop. In this mountainous region, the micro-climate is good for Mediterranean crops like lemons and olives. The lemons are better and juicier than Punjab lemons. A sub-species of wild olives that doesn't bear much fruit but grows even in hardy, rough conditions is used for grafting with fruit varieties, producing about 1,000 litres of extra virgin olive oil each year.

According to official estimates, Kashmiri grapes are cultivated on almost 500 to 600 hectares of land with production up to 1100 to 1500 MT per year.

Dairy products

Holstein Friesian (HF) and Jersey cows were introduced in Kashmir several decades ago, producing 4 million litres of milk per day. Organic Kashmiri butter wrapped in Chinar leaves was common in the yesteryears, but is now sold only by a few.

Spices

Kashmiri saffron is known for its aroma, colour, and medicinal value. The saffron of Pampore town is considered to be of superior quality with 8.72% crocin content as compared to the Iranian variety which contains 6.82%. In May 2020, Kashmiri saffron was given a geographical indication tag. The spice shahi zeera or imperial cumin or black cumin belongs to Apiaceae (parsley) family and was initially available in the jungles of Gurez Valley. These darker seeds unlike the regular brown zeera are of superior quality because of their smell, relative rarity and shape.

Among the spices used:

カシミールチリペッパー（martswangun） — チリはカシミールで地元栽培されている。赤くなると、乾燥させて粉末状にする。粉末の赤唐辛子は、ほとんどの肉料理や一部のベジタリアン料理に使われる、適度に辛い着色料である。味は、ブガム、タンマルグ、バンディポラ、ダンゲルポラ、アナントナグ、ヌールバーグなどの栽培地域によって異なる。ブガムのチリは最も苦味が強く、ヌールバーグのチリは種が少なく、他の地域で栽培されたものよりも辛い。地元政府は、シュリーナガル地区とブドガム地区で栽培されたチリに地理的表示タグを求めている。
シムラ、パンジャビ、ペプシチリペッパー（martswangun） — シムラ種はスパイシーなqormasを作るのに使われ、ペプシ種は通常インドのラージャスターン州から輸入され、ペプシボトルに似ている。
アサフェティダ（yangu） — カシミール・パンディット料理の多く、ベジタリアン料理と非ベジタリアン料理の両方に使われる。赤いアサフェティダは、豊かな香りと独特の風味から優れているとされ、特別なカシミール料理のレシピでは、しばしば純粋で混じりけのない形で使われる。カシミール人詩人アガ・シャヒド・アリはこのスパイスの愛好家で、ブルックリンのアパートでyanguの雲の中から現れることで知られていた。
カルダモン（nich auleh） — 莢を砕いて得られる種子は、yakhean、qaliyaなどのカレー、またkahwahやsheer/noon chaiなどの茶に使われる。
ベイリーフ（tej pata） — カシミールでは米のpolavやビリヤニ料理に最も一般的に使われる。
ブラックペッパー（marts） — 果実と種子の両方が使われる。
シナモン（dalcyn） — 通常カシミールのほとんどの料理に使われ、kahwahチャイの重要な材料でもある。
Ratan jot（アルカネット）はカシミール・パンディットによって料理に色を付けるために使われる。
クローブ（rong） — rogan josh、dum olavなど多くの料理に不可欠な材料であり、ピクルス作りにも使われる。
フェンネル（bodiyana） — kulchaなどのパン作りにしばしば使われ、食後にそのまま提供される。粉砕したアニスシードは、ほとんどすべてのカシミールシチューに使われる。
ジンジャー（shaunth） — 乾燥粉末の形で、ほとんどすべてのカシミール料理に使われる。
タマリンド（tambar）
ターメリックパウダー（lader） — インド料理、特にカシミール料理で最も広く使われているスパイスの一つである。カレーに黄色い色を与えるが、この目的のためにサフランの代わりにしてはならない。なぜなら、この二つはほとんど共通点がないからである。
サフラン（kong posh） — 揉み砕いた雌しべをひとつまみ加えるだけで、料理に色と甘苦い味を与えるのに十分である。
クミンシード（safed ziur） — bhat haakhを除くほとんどすべての料理、ベジタリアン料理でも非ベジタリアン料理でも重要なスパイスである。
キャラウェイシード（krihun ziur/zureh）
コリアンダーシード（danival） — カシミールでは、乾燥した形と丸ごとの種子の両方で使われる。ピクルスやvari（カシミール・ガラムマサラ）を作るのに不可欠である。
ニゲラシード（siyah dana）
フェヌグリークシード（bresta） — 魚料理、vari作り、ピクルス作りに使われる。
乾燥フェヌグリークの葉（hoechh mith）
ナツメグ（zafal）
メース（jalvatier）
重曹（phul）
キュウリ、マスクメロン、スイカ、カボチャの殻をむいた種子（char magz）
乾燥砕いたミントの葉（hoekh pudana）
乾燥ニンニク（rohan）
乾燥エシャロット（pran）
バリ・マサラケーキ — haakh、gogjee nadur、ほうれん草、コールラビ、razmah gogjee、魚、shikaar（狩猟肉）など、多くの料理の素早い風味付けに使う。
銀箔（varak） — プーラオや肉料理の飾り付けに使われるティッシュのように薄い食用銀箔。

Rock salt consumption is quite old in Kashmir. It was and is still being imported from Khewrah area of Pakistani Punjab, where it was first discovered by the troops of Alexander the Great in 326 B.C. Pre-independence, rock salt was imported via Mughal Road, which, before the advent of Mughals, was called Namak Route. After partition, its supply was barred. Because of its benefits, it is now being consumed by almost one-fourth of the population.

Specialties by season

Spring is often considered a season of rejuvenation after a long and harsh winter. Picnics, of which the Kashmiris are very fond, are planned around the theme of food. The countryside is awash with white and pink flowers of almond (badaam), peach (tsunun) and cherry (gilaas) blossoms. The mustard fields join the show with their bright-yellow blooms. The pear (tang) blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers. Apricot (Tser) blossoms are white in colour, often tinged with a pink or reddish hue. They grow from late spring through early summer. Beans are a spring vegetable. Cherries are a fruit of late spring and summer.Coriander (danival) is a cool herb whose season predominates between spring and summer in cooler areas. Garlic (rohan) is found mainly in spring and through fall season. Melons (kharbooz) are a fruit grown in spring and summer. Tender spring-time haakh (collard greens) are called kaanul.

The season of harvesting lotus stem (nadur) starts in September. The samovar bubbles in a corner, spreading the sweet fragrance of saffron and cardamom in the air. Cookie-shaped kandi kulchas made of flour, butter, sugar and sprinkled with poppy seeds are passed around to be dipped into the tea and relished. Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area. Dandelion leaves, also known as haand in Kashmir, are foraged on foot. Going to the countryside, one can see paddy being cut with sickles and then stacked in huge piles to dry. Chestnuts are roasted in the dying embers. Bulbous garlic and red potatoes jostle for space. Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district. Going towards the hilly areas one can see the maize and walnut trees with their fruit getting ready to be harvested. Going towards the apple producing areas of Sopore in North Kashmir or Shopian in South Kashmir, one can see cartons of apple being transported to various parts of the country.

During the long winters the days are short, sunlight and electricity in short supply, so there is not much that can liven up existence except interesting food, so it constitutes a major interest of the Kashmiris' lives. On window sills and terraces, one can spot small piles of aubergines, cherry tomatoes, gourds and turnips being sun-dried. There is ample time and the daan (Kashmiri traditional stove) with its twin stoves (Chaer in Kashmiri) ignited by fire wood placed in one inlet) is always ready to oblige long hours of cooking despite the shortages of electricity. When all village roads remained blocked due to heavy snowfall and villagers have to use oil lamps or kerosene lanterns, the entire family is called to the kitchen where flavour of the overnight shab deg fills the entire space. Kohlrabi (monje) is cold tolerant, and continues to grow on the fields in winter, so much that a little frost even helps it.

List of dishes

Some noted Kashmiri dishes include:

Barbecue

One version of the origin of kababs is the one in which Turkish soldiers were first known to grill chunks of meat on open fires. Kashmir's kababs are cooked with local spices and accompanied with dips:

Kabab, condimented minced meat, roasted or fried, on skewers. According to chef Ghulam Nabi Dar (aka Bitte Waaze), the meat for the kabab is first minced with a very sharp knife (haché au couteau), then it requires an egg, cumin, cardamom and garlic, then it needs to be minced some more until it becomes a paste, then it is mounted on 1 m long skewers to be reheated the day after.
Kokur kabab, chicken kebab.
Lahradar kabab, also known as lahabi/moachi kabab. Minced mutton classically shaped like a boat with a depression in the centre, cooked in curd based mild spicy gravy. Once softened, the meat is soaked overnight in egg and at least nine different seasonings and spices, including onions, red chili powder, nutmeg, garam masala, ginger, garlic and coriander. It is typically served with yoghurt.
Kokur lahabdar kabab ruwangan, chicken kebabs in rich tomato gravy.
Shammi kabab, wazwan style mutton patties with ground chickpeas, egg and mild Kashmiri spices.
Champ, lamb chops.
Nadur maund, Kashmir's answer to hash browns, lotus root ginger and mint patties with a dash of eclectic Kashmiri spices.
Buzith tschaman, grilled paneer marinated in yoghurt, cream and aniseed. It is said a poet wandering in the lovely forests of Kashmir, cooked this dish out in the open.
Buzith gaad, charcoal grilled fish marinated with Kashmiri spices.
Buzith olav, thool, maaz etc., the round oven-baked clay-pot kangir works as an oven for baking food-items such as eggs, potatoes, pea beans, chunks of meat etc.
Talith gaad, fish marinated in black pepper, cumin and Kashmiri chilli and then shallow-fried.
Talith kokur, Fried chicken.
Tujji, meat marinated in Kashmiri red chillies and aniseed powder, barbequed to perfection.
Gaad tujji, fish kababs.
Tschaman tujji, Kashmiri style marinated cottage cheese chunks barbecued on a skewer and served with a side of chutney.
Tchaap maaz, sausages.
Kaleeng, thick membrane that covers sheep's head, skull and all, chopped coarsely and set to cook with spices and minimal liquid over a low fire for hours.

Breakfast

For the average Kashmiri, breakfast normally means fresh bread from the local bakery and a cup of noon chai (salt tea). While the bread is there in all the seasons for the breakfast, its accompaniments change. Some affordable luxuries include:

Harisa. Made by specialised cooks called harisaguyr, Harisa is a popular meat preparation made for breakfast, it is slow cooked with spices in a special underground oven for a 24-hour period and hand stirred. A good harisa entails a meticulous mincing of deboned mutton, mixed with local rice, fennel seeds, cinnamon, cardamom and salt. Cooked on sim fire for at least 6 to 8 hours, boiling smoky mustard oil and some milk is poured while the wooden masher continues to stir. Small kebabs are made to be served along with and also a small serving of Methi (lamb's intestines cooked in fenugreek) and tempered onion rings. The dish is so tasty that one 18th century Afghan governor, who came here during the Afghan Rule, is believed to have over-eaten himself to death.
Harisa zafrani, sprinkled with Kashmiri saffron. A maker in Aali Kadal was known for this peculiar dish.
Luchi & halwa, by luchi makers outside Kheer Bhawani shrine.
Makai vath, cooked granular maize meal. Used to be a staple food in the unirrigated highland villages, where rice could not be grown.
Gaer vugra, water chestnut flour porridge. These water chestnuts or buffalo nuts are called gaer in Kashmiri. They grow in shallow waters at many places, especially near the shore of the famous Wular lake. In India, these water chestnuts also grow but are generally bigger in size and have more water content. Generally eaten with churned yoghurt diluted with water (gurus).
Vushki vath, barley meal porridge. Cooked as a staple food in some hilly villages of Kashmir, where rice or maize is not easily available or grown.

Wazwan dishes

Unlike most dishes of the Indian subcontinent where the flavour is added to the food while cooking on the flames, the wazwan flavours are added while the dish is still uncooked by adding flavoured water to the preparation or soaking in flavoured water (osmosis):

Tabakhmaaz, rib racks in ghee with sweet fat lodged between lacquered slips of meat Kashmiri Hindus commonly refer to this dish as Qabargah. It seems to have travelled from Kazakhstan where it is known by its Pandit name, Qabargah. While Qabargah is simmered on a low heat for a longer duration and then fried very quickly, Tabakhmaaz is boiled with salt and garlic and characterised by a slightly elastic texture.
Tang ta lahabi kabab, whole Kashmiri pears and mutton kababs that often go with a tomato-yoghurt gravy.
Waaza kokur, whole chicken cooked in saffron gravy with mild Kashmiri spices.
Safed kokur, chicken with white sauce.
Dani Phoul.
Dani phoul, mutton shank.
Aab gosh, also known as dodhe maaz. A famous milk-based curry cooked in spices and ghee over a low flame. Ten litres of pure cow milk is reduced to one and then mixed with the mutton.
Methi maaz, mutton intestines flavoured with a spice mixture containing dried fenugreek (methi) leaves.
Waazeh hedar, Kashmiri wazwan-style mushrooms.
Marchwangan kormeh, meat cooked with spices and yogurt and mostly using Kashmiri red chillies and hot in taste.
Kokur marchawangan kormeh, Chicken cooked in red hot chilly gravy.
Aloobukhar kormeh, mince cooked with dried plums.
Badam kormeh, tender mutton pieces cooked in creamy almond gravy.
Danival kormeh lamb cooked with coriander or parsley.
Kokur danival kormeh, chicken cooked in curd based gravy, flavoured with saffron and fresh coriander.

Soups

Tsatt/maaz rass, mutton stock with mutton pieces flavoured with aromatic spices and salt.
Channa rass, easily made chickpea soup.

Domestic meat stews

Shab Deg with chunks.

Shab Deg with Meatballs.

Rogan josh

Yakhein.

Gogjee Ta Maaz (Mutton with Turnips).
Qaliya, a mutton delicacy in which all flavours are included, excluding red chilly powder.
Shab Deg: dish cooked with turnip and meat/duck/chicken/beef and balls of ground meat, left to simmer overnight.
Dani, marrow-bone in gravy.
Matschgand, lamb meatballs in a gravy tempered with red chillies. A lot of emphasis is put on the shape of the meat (oblong and not round) and the colour of the gravy.
Methi matsch, muttonballs with fenugreek leaves that have been boiled, crushed or liquidised into a paste.
Matsch ta tser, lamb fingers with apricot. The dish looks beautiful when laid on the table as the apricots remain yellow and the minced meat red making it very colourful.
Olav bokhara barith matsch, minced meat balls stuffed with plums.
Mith ta golemach, minced meat balls with fenugreek.
Matsch ta phul gupi, minced lamb fingers with cauliflower.
Matsch ta olav, lamb fingers cooked with potatoes.
Tser kofta, minced mutton balls with an apricot inside.
Nadir ta maaz, lotus stems and mutton.
Nadir, oluv ta maaz, lotus stems, potatoes and mutton cooked on low heat and gravy thickened with garam masala and caraway seeds.
Maaz vangun, aubergine with meat.
Kokur aloobukhar korma, chicken cooked with dried plums with Kashmiri ingredients.
Palak ta kokur, spinach with country chicken.
Gand ta kokur, chicken and onion curry.
Kokur ta torreil, chicken with snake gourd.
Bam chunth ta maaz, quince with lamb.
Gogjee-aare ta maaz, sundried Turnips with Lamb.
Gaazar ta maaz, carrots and mutton.
Bote-tser maaz, lamb and dried apricots.
Haand ta kokur, dandelion greens and chicken.
Haand ta maaz, dry dandelion and meat curry. Old age Kashmiri recipe for lactating mothers.
Haakh maaz, Kashmiri saag cooked with mutton.
Woste haakh ta maaz, green/red leaves with lamb.
Monje ta maaz, Kashmiri style knol khol and mutton. Kashmiris don't only eat knol khol, its leaves are mandatory.
Gole al syun, pumpkin cooked with lamb.
Torreil ta maaz, ridged gourd with mutton.
Monje qaliya, kohlrabi with mutton.
Rogan josh, a lamb based dish, cooked in a gravy seasoned with liberal amounts of Kashmiri chillies (in the form of a dry powder), ginger (also powdered), garlic, onions or asafoetida, gravy is mainly Kashmiri spices and mustard oil based. The Persian and central Asian influence is evident in the large quantities of saffron, and asafoetida, favourite Persian flavourings, and the Mughals cultivated these plants in the subcontinent to provide their cooks with a ready supply. Kashmiri Muslims use praan (a type of shallot), plus garlic and cockscomb flower for colouring. Columnist Vir Sanghvi has nominated it as world's most famous Indian curry.
Kokur roghan josh, fried chicken cooked in cock's comb flower gravy with Kashmiri condiments.
Hindi roghan josh, Roghan Josh with tamarind.
Vunth roghan josh, for the past two decades, camel meat is sold on the occasion of Eid-ul-Azha in keeping with the tradition of Muhammad who mostly used to sacrifice camels on holy occasions.
Pachi roghan josh, trotter in red gravy.
Yakhean, a yoghurt-based mutton gravy without turmeric or chilli powder. The dish is primarily flavoured with bay leaves, cloves and cardamom seeds. This is a mild, subtle dish eaten with rice often accompanied with a more spicy side dish. Yakhean came to be known in Kashmir during Akbar's rule. Yoghurt-based meat curries were part of Persian cuisine, and the emperor introduced this style of cooking to his new state when he annexed it in 1586.
Kokur yakhean, succulent pieces of chicken cooked in curd flavoured in Kashmiri herbs.
Shyaem, minced mutton cutlets cooked with curd.
Kokur shyaem, chicken cutlets in yoghurt.

Innards and offal

Chuste, spicy dry curry of goat's intestines.
Naihkala ta phendeir yakhean, certain parts of innards of sheep or goat, cooked with curd.
Chhagael yakhean, testes of sheep or goat cooked in curd etc.
Damin yakhean, tripe yakhni (curd curry).
Bokavachi chhagael, kidneys and testes of goat or sheep.
Charvan, cooked diced liver of sheep or goat.
Choek charvan, sour diced liver of goat or sheep.
Charvan oluv, curried liver and potatoes.
Kalle maaz, goat's head meat.
Goshtabeh.
Pachi ta heri rass, cooked legs with hoofs, and head of sheep or goat.

Meatballs

The wazas are trained for years to learn the art of making the right cuts and grounding the meat to perfection. Traditionally, the lamb is mashed with walnut wood:

Goshtabeh minced mutton balls with spices in yogurt gravy. Also known as 'The Dish of Kings' in Kashmir region and the last dish of the banquet. Jawaharlal Nehru once named it 'the cashmere of meats'. Legendary Bollywood actor Yusuf Khan aka Dilip Kumar was said to love goshtabeh the most. In December 1955, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the then Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir and Nikita S. Khurschev, the first secretary of the Soviet Communist party were captured in an iconic photograph feeding each other goshtabeh.
Beef riste.
Beef goshtabeh. Pulverised beef with 25 per cent fat is pounded into a pulpy mass and seasoned before being shaped into meatballs. It is then immersed in a seasoned hot water bath, before being placed in a bubbling-hot broth of well-churned yoghurt, laced with milk and some beef stock and cooked to a semi-thick consistency. The original recipe calls for very fatty buffalo meat, which can pose quite a challenge for the unprepared palate.
Palak riste, usually four small 'rista' pieces, along with some spinach Leaves, are ladled on a 'Traem' for four guests.
Safed riste, Goshtabeh meatballs are the biggest, next rista and palak rista meatballs are the tiniest.

Vegetarian sides

Kashmir produces tons of vegetables and forest produce. The traditional dishes are:

Dum olav/Dum aloo, potato cooked with ginger powder, fennel and other hot spices. The most skilful part is to prick potatoes after frying them so that the gravy or the sauce gets absorbed in the potato, making them spongy and enhancing the flavour profile of the multiple potato-folds.
Wazel aelwa, forgotten aloo recipe mostly cooked in the villages.
Matar olav, potatoes peas curry. A classic side dish that is regularly paired with white rice (batta).
Olav dude legit, potatoes in yoghurt.
Gande te matar, onions and peas.
Gande te hemb, green beans and onions gravy.
Boda razmaah ta olav, green beans and potatoes.
Dum Phul Gupi (cauliflower).
Razmah hemb ta nadir, spicy French beans with lotus stems.
Razmah hemb ta vangan, French beans with aubergine.
Band gupi ta tamatar, cabbage cooked with tomatoes.
Nadir palak, lotus roots and spinach. This is a side dish served in big feasts and dinners.
Ranith bam chunth khanji, cooked quince. Quince is a very popular fruit with Kashmiri people. In olden days, it was baked in daans (clay ovens).> The simmering heat of the leftover embers would turn them yummy.
Bam chunth vangun, quince and eggplants.
Bam chunth nadir, quince with lotus stem.
Dued vangan, eggplants with yoghurt.
Karel ta vangun, Kashmiri karela baingan (bitter gourd and eggplants).
Al lanej ta vangan, pumpkin greens with aubergine.
Tsounth vangan, green apple curry. Apples and aubergines, both are sliced long and fried. The oil is tempered with asafoetida (yangu) and the usual spices. If apples are on the sweeter side, a few drops of lemon juice are added. This sweet and tangy creation made from sour apple and aubergines is a popular one once autumn arrives in the valley.
Choek vangan-hachi, sundried eggplant instead of the fresh vegetable.
Gole al doon gooje, pumpkin with walnuts.
Gande dued, fried onions mixed with milk.
Hoch haand, dried dandelion greens, boiled and ground to a pasty texture.
Ruwangun hachi, dried tomatoes.
Monje Haakh, kholrabi being a delicacy.
Dum Monje, knol khol (karam/gaanth gobhi/kohlrabi/ German turnip) in Yoghurt.
Dum Phul Gupi, cauliflowers cooked in their own moisture.
Phul Gupi Olav, cauliflower with potatoes.
Haakh, wosteh haakh (red orach), heanz haakh, sotchal (mallow), kretch (knapweed), haand (dandelion), obuj (sorrel), lissa (amaranth), among others. Collard greens is enjoyed by Kashmiri people and they have their own versions of cooking the same with cottage cheese, mutton or chicken.
Nunnar, purslane.
Bhat haakh, also known as Sabz Haakh. Bhat is Kashmiri for Pandit. Haakh is eaten by everyone in Kashmir, but is a Kashmiri Pandit speciality.
Dagith haakh, mashed collard greens.
Gogjee haakh, turnip greens with a pinch of asafoetida. The hardy leafy green, thrives in winter conditions and becomes a crucial ingredient in the local cuisine. By using mustard oil, cumin seeds, and a medley of aromatic spices, the dish infuses the flavours of its distinctive blend.
Wapal haakh, teasel leaves (Dipsacus Inermis).
Wosteh haakh ta zombre thool, orach paired with hard-boiled eggs.
Haakh nadir, collards or kales cooked with lotus roots.
Haakh ta olav, potatoes and greens.
Haakh vangan, collard greens with brinjal.
Sotchal nadur, mallow (Malva Parviflora) is a wild vegetable found anywhere on the roadsides, parks, playgrounds, grazing lands, etc. The earliest account of this plant appears to have been written by a Greek author named Pedamus Dioscorides in the first century AD. The dish is liked by all, young and old particularly because of its limited availability in foreign markets.
Sotchal vangan, mallow leaves and baigan. The dish is made from sotchal and thool-vangan. Thool-Vangan is a small eggplant that has not grown into its full size. It is soft and fleshy with a minimal amount of seeds.
Mujji mulivian, mashed radish leaves curry.
Mujje patar ta vangan, radish leaves with aubergine.
Zamutdodh cuar, yoghurt curry stirred continuously on low heat.
Olav bum, a delicious dry dish prepared with potatoes and water lily plant commonly found in ponds and lakes of Kashmir.
Bandh roghan josh, cabbage simmered in a fusion of authentic spices, and yoghurt to create the signature vegetarian 'sibling' of Roghan Josh.
Nadir roghan josh, lotus root cooked on low heat until the nadur is tender.
Cshte gogjee, turnips.
Cshte mujji, boiled and mildly spiced radishes.
Cshte band gupi, boiled and mildly spiced cabbage (with asafoetida).
Choek nadir, lotus-root with tartaric acid (tatri).
Choek mujji/mujji kalaa, long radishes with tamarind paste.
Choek al, gourd with tamarind.
Al yakhean, bottle-gourd cooked in yoghurt based gravy and flavoured with Kashmiri condiments.
Hedar yakhean, mushrooms yakhni.
Nadir yakhean, lotus root cooked with yoghurt.
Nutree yakhean, soya chunks yakhni.
Karel yakhean, prepared bitter gourds cooked until gravy thickens with yogurt.
Vangan yakhean, fried aubergine in yoghurt.
Pudna al, pumpkin with mint.
Torreil ta vangan, ridged gourd with eggplant. This vegetable is available in the summer and is sweet in taste and very easy to cook.
Torreil ta tamatar, ridged gourd with tomatoes.
Variphali olav, potato curry with hot lentil dumplings. This dish is a Punjabi preparation but very much enjoyed by Kashmiris.

Mushrooms

Native to the Himalayan foothills, Guchhi or kanaguchhi mushrooms (species in the genus Morchella, commonly known as morels elsewhere) are highly prized not only in Kashmir but internationally, particularly in European gastronomy. With the exception of a few very limited and experimental successes, efforts to cultivate (kana)guchhi or morels at a large scale have been unsuccessful and consumption relies on the harvest of wild mushrooms. As a result, these mushrooms rank among the most expensive of all fungi, with a kilogram of such mushrooms costing up to 30,000 INR in India (as of 2023; approximately €330/kg, or US$350/kg).

Traditional or well known dishes include:

Kanaguchhi yakhean, morels cooked in rich yoghurt gravy.
Kanaguchhi matar masala, an absolute flavour bomb of delicious morels picked by locals.
Guchhi Ver, kanaguchhi (Morchella esculenta) mushroom with traditional Kashmiri spice mix, an uncommon dish cooked by Suman Kaul, a self-trained masterchef.
Shajkaan, aka Kanpapar (Geopora arenicola) mushroom, fried with onions and tomatoes, or even prepared with milk.

Tschaman

Paneer is called tschaman in Kashmiri. The spicing falls into the sweet-savoury spectrum which means using a lot of cinnamon, mace and clove alongside earthier spices like cumin seed and ground coriander. The scarcity of fresh ginger in mountain geography also means that ground ginger is a spice staple. Paneer recipes are:

Tschaman Kanti, cubes of cottage cheese that are fried, tossed in select spices and stir fried with onions and tomatoes.
Lyader Tschaman. lyadur means yellow which is due to the presence of turmeric, and tschaman is cottage cheese. The term 'yellow gravy' might not do justice to the complexity of flavor you get from layering nine spices, some of them whole, with green chilies and simmering them in water before thickening the sauce with milk. British Indian chef Romy Gill called it 'a bowl of golden yellow deliciousness'.
Veth Tschaman, also known as Vozij Tschaman. This is the rogan josh equivalent.
Ruwangan Tschaman, cottage cheese in tomato gravy.
Palak/Haakh Tschaman, cottage cheese prepared in spinach based gravy peppered with Kashmiri ingredients.
Mith Tschaman, panir with fenugreek.
Mith Tschaman Ta Niul Kara, panir and fenugreek with green peas.
Matar Tschaman, turmeric matar paneer. Traditionally, the paneer is meant to be deep fried.
Torreil Ta Tschaman, ridged gourd with paneer.
Tschaman Monje Qaliya, kohlrabi with paneer. Used to be made in big degchis on mehendiraat.
Kanaguchhi Tschaman, Kashmiri morels with paneer in a tangy gravy.
Gogjee-aare Ta Tschaman, dried turnips with cottage cheese.
Tschaman Vangan, panir and brinjals.

Chutneys and raitas

Called the shadowy underbelly of the Kashmiri wazwan, they add real colour to the dishes. They are expected to be served free, when Kashmiris go out to eat or pack food. The varieties of spicy spreads are:

Zamut Dodh, plain homemade yoghurt.
Muj Chetein, translates to radish in yoghurt. A unique blend of grated radish and yoghurt, seasoned with a pinch of roasted cumin. The Kashmiri version of the quintessential raita.
Doon muj chetein, walnut-radish raita.
Zeresht Chetein, Barberry.
Anardan Chetein, prepared with dried pomegranate seeds (called anardana) along with coriander and mint leaves.
Zirish Chetein. Blackcurrants.
Aelchi Chetein, sour cherries with a bit of salt.
Gordoul Chetein, sour plum chutney.
Pudna Chetein/Buran, a light chutney made out of green chillies and fresh mint.
Ruwangun Chetein, tomatoes sautéed with green chillies and oil, until most of their juices evaporate.
Ruwangun Haech Chetein, sun-dried tomato chutney.
Martswangun Chetein, green chilli chutney ground in a mortar.
Rohani Chetin, garlic chutney with red chilies.
Kishmish Chetein, condimented sauce of raisins.
Chounth Ta Danival Chetein, apple and coriander chutney.
Aloo Bukhar Chetein, made with fresh plums, onions, sugar, lime juice and spices.
Muj Chetein (variation), sautéed grated radish in mustard oil.
Buzith Nadir Chetein, roasted lotus stem chutney.
Buza/Foata Vangan, roasted/boiled and mashed brinjals mixed with curd.
Dodh Al/Al Raita, bottle Gourd in yoghurt.

Meat stir-fries

Mutton/Chicken Kanti, small boneless mutton/chicken pieces, marinated, shallow fried in fresh onions, tomatoes and green chillies.
Matsch Barith Karel, bitter gourd stuffed with minced lamb.
Matar Machh, green Peas and Minced Mutton.
Sotchal Charvan, mallow leaves and liver.
Hedar, Chhagael, Bokavachi, Ta Krehnamaz, mushrooms with testes, kidneys and liver of sheep or goat.
Talith Kaed, fried brains of goat or sheep.
Kaed Pakora, brain fritters.

Fish

The age-old practice of shadow fishing is locally known as Tchaayi Gaad in Anchar lake in the Soura vicinity of Srinagar city. Fishermen row their boats early in the morning, breaking the frozen part of the lake to catch fish with a harpoon. They create a shadow on the nook of their boat by hiding themselves under a blanket or a makeshift umbrella made of straw to attract the fish and later strike the approaching fish with the harpoon. The banks of the lake of yore used to be dotted with thickets of willow trees under whose shadow the fish would take refuge during summers, thereby easing the task for the local fishermen to catch them. Common fish dishes are:

Nader ti Gaad, fish (Bilose, Zob, Indian Major Carp, Catla, Rohu, Margarita, Mahseer, Snow Trout, Niger, Chush, Khront, Churu etc.) cooked with lotus stem, a delicacy cooked on festival days like Eid, Navroze and Gaadi Batti (Festival of Kashmiri Pandits).
Mujh Gaad, a dish of radishes with a choice of fish.
Haak Gaad, Fish curry cooked with kashmiri spinach.
Gada Ta Gogjee/Monjje/Band Gupi, Fish cooked with Turnips, or Knol Khol, or Cabbage.
Gaad Ta Chounth, fish cooked with green apples.
Gaad Qaliya, fish in yellow gravy.
Ruwangan/Tamatar Gaad, white river fish cooked delicately in a tomato gravy.
Kong Gaad, fish with saffron flowers.
Gaad Leij, trout fish cooked in traditional Kashmiri style and served with vegetables such as nadur, etc.
Gaad Ta Obuj, wild obuj(rumex obtusifolius) with fish.
Hogada Ta Haakh/Bum, dried fish (bolinao and others) with 'karam' saag or dried water-lily stems.
Kanz Ta Gaad/Guran, fish or small fish or very small dried fish, cooked with slightly fermented but non-alcoholic drink sadre kaenz. In the old days, when one family in a neighbourhood would make kaenz it was understood it belonged equally to the rest to be used whenever required. The heat of the generously used spices like chili and ginger powder in this popular dish is supposed to be tempered by the cooling effect of this rice beer-like brew.
Fari/Phari, smoked fish. A winter delicacy prepared in a particular method by only a few remaining households in Srinagar's Tiploo Mohalla. The fish used is a variety of trout belonging to the genus Schizothorax.
Phari Ta Haakh, smoked fish with collard greens. The skin of the smoked fish is removed and it is fried until it turns reddish-brown. The fish is added to collard greens and cooked until all the water is absorbed and oil floats on top. Best had with steamed rice, and best not to reheat the dish.

Salads

Salaad, a plate of sliced vegetables precisely cucumber, tomatoes and carrots, decorated in concentric circles on a plate. A side with lemon squeezed on top.
Razmah Salaad/Chat, kidney beans salad.

Rice

Kashmiris eat much more rice than the people of the Jammu region:

Batta, steamed white rice.
Buzz Batta, fried rice.
Wazul Batta, a high-nutrition red rice snack for pregnant ladies.
Taayi Batta, Kashmiri-style pan-fried rice.
Gucchi Polav, Kashmiri pulao with black morels.
Matar Polav, a variation of plain rice with peas, fresh or frozen added.
Tahaer, yellow rice. Prepared by Pandits on auspicious occasions, Muslims also prepare it on certain occasions.
Khetchar, made with rice and chilke wali moong dal, it is best enjoyed with monje aanchar.
Neni Moonge Khetchar, mutton and whole green lentils cooked in mustard oil and finished on dum with Basmati rice.
Vaer, Salted Rice Pudding with kernels of walnuts or intestines of sheep or goat. Always cooked by Kashmiri Pandits at the beginning of Weddings or 'Yagneopavit' ceremony.
Mayir, saltish pudding of rice cooked with diluted curd from which generally butter has been separated. Mostly prepared in rural areas particularly after a week or so on the happy occasion of the delivery of a cow.
Yaji, boiled and steam-cooked salty rice-flour cakes.
Batta Laaye/Mur-murei/Chewrei, rice munchies.
Byael Tomul, leftover fermented newly sprouted paddy seeds yield this delicious snack. It is sun-dried and baked in an earthen vessel placed upon a choola (oven), cooled and pounded in a wooden mortar. After cleaning the husk, it is eaten with dry walnut kernels and salt tea.

Breads

Kinke Tschut, a whole wheat unleavened flatbread cooked on a griddle.
Parott, a buttery flatbread. A one-kilo paratha is served outside a Sufi shrine in Kashmir. Celebrity chef Sanjeev Kapoor has stated he used to make rumali roti but not such a big paratha.
Puer, small round of deep fried and puffed wheaten cake. Served hot, these are relished with vegetable preparations or sweet dishes.
Tschur Tschut, Spicy rice crêpes typically eaten with breakfast chai.
Zyur Tschut, this savoury pancake is prepared from rice flour, cumin and green chillies.
Tomul Tschut, rotis made with rice flour.
Dranna, rice bread crumbs.
Makai Tschut, corn flour chapatti.
Gyav Tschut, as the name suggests, made with generous amounts of ghee, served with rogan josh.
Makai Woer, afternoon bread prepared with corn flour that is relished with tea.
Gari Tschut, bread made from water chestnut flour.
Gari Puer, deep fried small rounds of water chestnut flour.
Vushki Tschut, baked rounds of barley flour.

Eggs

In certain rural areas, the tradition of putting an egg or two in kanger (fire pot) is known to each individual. The fragrance of an egg cooking in the kanger would trigger the enzymes signalling the egg is ready:

Thool Mond, omelette.
Haak Ta Thool, collard greens and Eggs together.
Prezdar Ta Thool, Foxtail lilies with eggs, eaten locally in Kupwara.
Wosteh Haakh Ta Thool, red spinach with eggs.
Zombre Thool Ta Dal, a Kashmiri traditional dish of red lentils (masoor) and hard-boiled eggs.
Thool Zambur, Kashmiri egg curry.
Gogjee-aare Ta Zombre Thool, dried turnip and boiled egg.
Zombre Thool Ta Ruwangan Hachi, fried eggs in a tomato reduction with ginger, garlic and green chillies.
Markhor (capra falconeri).
Thool Ta Obuj, kashmiri obuj, a wild growing plant with a sour taste, with eggs.

Game (shikaar)

Going by estimates, on an average 50-60 birds are killed every day in wetlands across Kashmir: Hunted game (shikaar) is not generally cooked immediately. It has to be hung for some days (faisander) before dressing it for cooking. Hanging makes the meat suppler and less fibrous, making it tastier to eat.

In British India, markhor (screw horn goat) was considered to be among the most challenging game species. It is the largest wild goat in the world. It is locally regarded as the tastiest wild meat.

Indian wild boar was introduced in the Himalayan region by Maharaja Gulab Singh, a Dogra military general. Its meat was a great delicacy for the Dogras and Sikhs, but after 1947 its population started dwindling in the Muslim-majority region.

Game dishes are:

Pacchin Dumpokhta, pintail. Called the king of the winter cuisine in Kashmir, it is a delicacy enjoyed by Kashmiri Pandits who would not normally eat chicken. The migratory bird looks like a duck but can fly with great speed. It comes to wetlands of Kashmir during winter. It is deep fried and cooked with hot spices.> The meat under the shining bluish golden feathers is tough but delicious and has a warming effect.
Batook Palak, duck with spinach.
Batook Ta Zamut Dodh, duck in a curd curry.
Gogji Ta Batook, duck with turnip. Autumn (harud) duck has a lot of flavor in it. This combination of tender duck meat with the earthy sweetness of turnips reflects the region's culinary prowess, emblematic in the sublime slow-cooked method known as dum. It is winter comfort food in Kashmir.
Shikar Rogan Josh, Roghan Josh of hunted game birds and animals such as mallard, geese, plover, snipe, rail, teal, quail, pintail, Wigeon, grouse, partridge, pheasant, spotted deer, hangal, antelope, wild goat etc.
Shikar Ta Nadeir, meat of game birds cooked with lotus roots.
Shikar Ta Haand, ducks and mallards prepared with dried dandelion.

Dals

Kashmiri Pandits who were vegetarian and did not even eat onions and tomatoes were known as Dal Battas (Dal Pandits):

Dal Nadur, Lotus stem boiled with green beans to make a dal.
Vaari Muth Dal, Black Turtle Beans (Kashmiri Vaari Muth).
Vaari Muth Gogjee, black turtle beans cooked with turnips.
Razmah Shab Deg, vegetarian variant of the traditional pot preparation, with kidney beans added instead of meat.
Razmah Dal, a red kidney bean stew with classic Kashmiri spice flavours of powdered ginger and fennel.
Razmah Gogjee, Kidney beans cooked with turnips.
Gogji aare ta Razmah, turnip circles are slow simmered with creamy rajma dal flavoured with ground ginger and fennel seeds over a gentle flame.
Razmah Hemb, Various green beans cooked with tender pods.
Dal Dabbi, Traditional lentil preparation cooked in milk with spices.
Channe Baegle, Native to the valley of Kashmir, the dried baegle dal is loved more in winters.
Razmah Nadur
Thool Razmah Yakhean, green kidney beans in yoghurt.
Vangun Hachi Ta Moonge Dal, Dried brinjals with moong.

Fermented foods

Various varieties of Kashmiri pickles are:

Aanchar, pickles (chicken, mutton, fish, greylag goose, mango, cherry, bitter gourd, amla, apple, apricot, plum, garlic, turnip, chillies, knol-khols, radishes, carrots, onions, cauliflowers, brinjals, lotus roots, green almonds, hard pears, grapes).

Street food

Makai Waet, roasted corn.
Buzith Gaer, roasted water chestnuts. Excursionists sit around a hot roasted small heap of nuts and with the help of two stones, one big and the other small, pound these one by one and extract the kernels.
Monje Guel, fritters of water chestnut kernels. Also called mesa or gaer guel in Kashmiri.
Puer (pooris), giant breads.
Nadur Maunj, sliced lotus stems marinated in spicy paste and deep fried.
Tandoori Chicken, Afghani Chicken, Chicken Lemon, varieties of street food at Khayam, Srinagar.
Deep-fried Kababs.
Mutton Keema Samosas, Chicken Keema Samosas etc.
Alla Posh Mond, pumpkin flower fritters.
Olav Mond/Monjivor, potato patty with ginger.
Doel Chetin, chutney in an earthen pot with different vegetables cabbage, onion, mint, etc.
Tillae Karrae, chickpeas or dried green peas, coated in a batter of flour and deep fried.
Mongh Masale, steamed black beans are mixed with salt and red chilli powder and served hot.
Matar, Kashmiri street food.
Chunth Pakori, crisp slices of batter-coated and fried green apple.
Vangan Pakori, fried aubergine coated with gram flour.
Olav Churma, fries.
Gand ta Palak Pakori, onions and spinach dipped in spiced batter and then deep-fried.
Kruhun Masale/Dub Maha, a poor man's shawarma, a thin lavas is made of refined flour in which boiled chickpeas are rolled and then dipped in tomato chutney.
Razmah Masale, rajma with corn.
Masale Tschot, chickpea masala spread over a lavas (kashmiri naan). The preparation for making masaal begins during the night or early hours of the morning. Then different kinds of chutneys or sauces are prepared. Radish chutney mixed with fresh curd, green chilli, coriander, pepper and salt is served with it and lastly the soft bread is used for wrapping.
Egg Roll
Dastar Katlam, famous halwai food.
Tobruk Halweh Parothe, deep fried poori with halwa.

Jalgoz, peanuts.

Cheese

The nomadic shepherds of the Kashmir valley, Gujjars and Bakerwals move their herd of dairy cattle and their own settlements up and down the mountains based on changing seasons:

Maesh Crari., described as the mozzarella of Kashmir. The discs are first coated with chilli, turmeric and salt, and then fried in mustard oil until they form a crisp, golden outer layer and the inside stays soft and creamy.
Kudan, a rare Gujjar goat cheese that looks like paneer but is more crumbly and akin to feta. Kudan is prepared in Bakerwal tents by heating some mustard oil in a pot on fire and then mixing some salt, turmeric and chilli along with the kudan cheese curds. Everything melts together into a golden liquid flecked with red chilli and small nuggets of kudan.

Desserts

Kashmiris are fond of sugar. Common sweetmeats are:

Halwa, sweetmeat originally made of honey, camel's milk, cashew nuts, and many other ingredients and brought from the Persian Gulf, via Bombay, in saucers to United India in the nineteenth century. Halwa tradition reached Kashmir towards the end of the nineteenth century.
Chounth Halwa.
Barfi, a milk-based sweet dish.
Khatai, a Kashmiri sweet biscuit that crumbles on each bite.
Khir, rice pudding.
Phirin, a sweet pudding of condensed milk with soji mixed with dry fruit like raisins, almonds, cashews, and pistachios, sprinkled with rose-water.
Kong Phirin, saffron flavoured rice pudding garnished with nuts.
Seemni, vermicelli kheer.
Shufta, a traditional dessert made with chopped dry fruits, spices like pepper powder, cardamom and more, in sugar syrup, garnished with rose petals.
Mitha Kanagucchi, morels in syrup.
Kofta Khumani, mince apricots.
Kashmiri Roth.
Roth, something between a cake and a bread, these sweet rotis made with flour, ghee, yoghurt, poppy seeds, eggs (on special occasions) and sugar are a domestic favourite. The art of baking a perfect roth is as much an acquired skill as it is a relearned discipline passed down from generations.
Basrakh, A sweet delicacy made from flour with a touch of ghee.
Tosha, an age-old Kashmiri dessert.
Lyde, kashmiri dessert made with whole wheat flour.
Nabad, sugar crystallised in an earthen pot or a copper container like Naat and then carved out as a solid sugar ball in a semi-round shape, bigger than a football.
Gulkand, indigenous rose (koshur gulaab) preserved in a sugar base. Non-Kashmiri roses are not used in this formulation. In place of sugar, honey can also be mixed with rose petals.
Matka Kulfi, kulfi topped with cold noodles.
Kesar Kulfi.
Dry Fruit Kulfi.

English pastry

Before 1918, Abdul Ahad Bhat, of Ahdoos, was under the tutelage of English bakers at Nedou's, a hotel in Srinagar owned by Austro-Swiss Michael Nedou. He quickly picked up the art of baking, and started a small bakery, the first by a Kashmiri at that time. Ahdoos's forte was English goodies, and as India inched towards freedom from British Rule he added Kashmiri items to the menu. Mughal Darbar was established on Residency Road in 1984 and on the road parallel is Jee Enn, founded by Ghulam Nabi Sofi in 1972. Many of the owners and staff of these new bakeries have trained in Ahdoos. The variety of pastries include:

Chicken or Mutton Patty, meat seasoned with salt, pepper and garlic, encased in layered puff pastry.
Puffs.
Cream Rolls.
Cream Buns.
Coconut Macaroons.
Walnut Macaroons.
Walnut Tart, made possible by the easy availability of walnut kernels in Kashmir.
Walnut Fudge, an exclusivity of Kashmir's Moonlight Bakery, the recipe contains 'snow-white walnuts' from Uri and honey and dates from local market.

Qandarwan

The Kashmir Valley is noted for its bakery tradition, that of the qandarwan. Nowhere else in the Indian subcontinent can be found such a huge variety of leavened breads, another pointer to the Central Asian influence on Kashmiris' food habits. On the Dal Lake in Kashmir or in downtown Srinagar, bakery shops are elaborately laid out. Bakers sell various kinds of breads with golden brown crusts topped with sesame and poppy seeds.

Different kinds of traditional Kashmiri breads include:

Tsoet and Tsoechvor/Tilvor are crisp and flaky small round breads topped with khaskhash (poppy) and til (sesame) seeds. A local bagel of about three inches diameter and six inches circumference, the upper half is soft and the lower crust is crispy. It is the evening/afternoon bread.
Sheermal, a saffron flavoured traditional flatbread said to have originated in Iran. It is offered in both sweet and flavourful versions. The sheermal bread is usually dented with multiple patterns bordering on corresponding lines.
Baqerkhayn (puff pastry), Kashmiri bakerkhani has a special place in Kashmiri cuisine. It is similar to a round naan in appearance, but crisp and layered, and sprinkled with sesame seeds. It is typically consumed hot during breakfast.
Lavasa, thin unleavened flat bread, white in colour, made of maida (finely-milled wheat flour). It is a paper-thin blistered naan. Some lavasas are soft while others are crispy.
Girda, made with dough that has been fermented overnight, rolls of dough are flattened out by hand and finger impressions are pressed into it to give you lines that run down its length. Girda and lavas are served with butter.
Kulcha, baked exclusively with ghee, this small, hard, dry, crumbly bread, is usually round in shape. It is decorated by placing a peanut in the centre of the upper face.
Roth khabar, a cake-like sweet bread made in traditional tandoor and covered with dry fruits.

Wazwan

Wazwan (ks) is a multi-course meal in Kashmiri cuisine, originating from Kashmir. It is a unique component of Kashmiri culture.

Almost all the dishes are meat-based using lamb, beef or mutton with few vegetarian dishes. It is popular throughout the larger Kashmir region. Moreover, Wazwan is also served internationally at Kashmiri food festivals and reunions.

all dishes are prepared according to halal standards. For vegetarians, there are distinctive delicacies such as Dum Alve, Nadur (lotus stem), Haakh (collard greens), Kashmiri vegetarian pulao is a flavorful dish prepared with aromatic Kashmiri spices, vegetables, and a mix of dried fruits, creating a rich and delightful culinary experience.

Beverages

Noon Chai or Sheer Chai

Kashmiris are heavy tea drinkers. Kashmiris don't use the word "Kashmiri Chai". The word "Noon" in Kashmiri means salt. The most popular drink is a pinkish coloured salted tea called "noon chai." It is made with black tea, milk, salt and bicarbonate of soda. The particular color of the tea is a result of its unique method of preparation and the addition of soda. The Kashmiri Hindus more commonly refer to this chai as "Sheer Chai." The Kashmiri Muslims refer to it as "Noon Chai" or "Namkeen Chai", both meaning salty tea.

Noon Chai or Sheer Chai is a common breakfast tea in Kashmiri households and is taken with breads like baqerkhani brought fresh from Qandur (Kashmiri : کاندر ) or bakers. It is one of the most basic and essential food items in a Kashmiri household. Tea was as served in large samavars. Now, the use of Samavars is limited to special occasions and normally kettles are used.

Nuts like almonds and pistachios and edible rose petals can also be added before serving and sometimes malai or fresh cream is added to give the tea viscosity and richness.

Natural mineral water

According to a 2022 study by the University of Kashmir, 87% of springs in Kashmir valley have excellent to good water quality. A large part of the society, particularly those living in rural and backward areas, depends on spring water. Most villagers believe spring water is the purest form of water due to a spiritual connection with the shrines.

From one of the oldest and purest spring waters of Kashmir, the Kokernag Spring, Bringi Spring Water has high alkalinity and is well balanced with minerals.

Babribyol

The Babribyol sharbat is a concoction of sweetened milk, rose water or Rooh Afza syrup, and soaked sweet basil seeds that are grown locally.

Lyaess

Made from yoghurt or kefir, Kashmiri lassi (lyaess) is a liquid, salty way to drink up yoghurt. The process of churning the buttermilk with a wooden choomph or churner is rhythmic and there is an art involved. The yoghurt has to be churned the right way, the buttery fats have to float to the top in a nice froth, the spices and dried mint leaves have to be just right.

Sadr-e-kaenz

This fermented rice water drink is supposed to be very good for a sluggish liver.

Shahi Sheera

Made by extracting the juice of different berries, it is prepared at home during Ramadan. It features in 1977 Kashmiri film Arnimaal where guests are sipping on the beverage during wedding festivities.

Food and beverage pairings

The traditional Kashmiri wazwan, which comprises slow-cooked meat dishes is a wonderful pairing that enhances the spicy notes of whisky. The Loire Valley wine Sancerre goes well with Kashmiri goshtabeh. A ripe fruity red works well with the full bodied roghan josh. A recommended wine to try with is Montepulciano.

Special occasions and festivals

Eid-ul-Fitr

While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes khajur ka laddoo (date balls), babribyol (basil seeds), kulfi, phirin, seemni, fruit chaat, fruit custard, kateer (a drink loaded with health benefits) and noon chai. The smell of slow-cooked mutton hovers, fragrant and sultry in the air, and despite the familiar air of unpredictability in Srinagar, spirits are high and streets are filled with happy greetings of Eid Mubarak.

Eid-ul-Fitr marks the end of 30 days of Ramadan. After attending Eid prayers at a mosque or Eidgah, families return home to welcome guests. A common tradition on Eid morning is serving Kehwa (saffron tea) and chai (milk tea), accompanied by an assortment of bakery items such as cakes, cookies, ghee tchot (a tandoor-baked flatbread), pastries, and savoury snacks like chicken and mutton patties.

Well-to-do families often prepare select Wazwan dishes, including kebabs, rista (meatballs in gravy), shami kebabs, and chicken pieces. Other delicacies like kanti (stir-fried meat), mutton or chicken tikki are served with sauces and green chutney (dhaniya chutney), especially when entertaining special guests like sons-in-law.

For lunch, rice is the staple, served with a variety of homemade dishes, almost all featuring meat. A notable preparation is yakhni, a traditional dish made with fresh curd and mild spices, offering a rich yet subtle flavor.

Eid-ul-Adha

The day begins with the Fajr (dawn) prayer and a breakfast of bakery goods with dodh kehwa (milky green tea). As the festival draws to a close, most well-to-do families start placing orders with the wazas for the feast, which is cooked by chefs at their own places and then sold to the customers for serving at their homes. Sacrificial animals include Delhi Walla, Merino Cross, Bakerwal and Kashmiri varieties of sheep.

Urs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood

Only vegetarian food is supplied to devotees. Majority of people in Batmaloo and adjoining areas turn vegetarian and do not eat meat or chicken. They widely consume dried turnips (gogji aare) because it is believed, during Dawood's time, sundried turnips helped Kashmir survive a famine.

Urs of Khwaja Masood Wali

The people of Pampore cook dried vegetables, eggs, cheese and other food stuff except meat and invite their relatives, friends on lunch or dinner to keep the tradition of the saint alive.

Urs of Dastageer Sahab

In Khanyar and Sarai Bala areas of Srinagar, the devotees are seen outside the shrines where local and non-local business establishments install their carts and are seen selling the Kashmiri traditional food stuff. Pious men sing hearty hymns over offerings of dates and sweets.

Urs of Raeshmol Saheb

People in Anantnag district in southern Kashmir quit eating meat as a mark of respect for the 16th century mystic. Rarely is a butcher shop open during these seven days. For three-and-a-half days each before and after the saint's Urs, people eat radish braised in tamarind.

Herath

For Kashmiri Pandits, the prasad offering at Shivratri puja is a charger piled high with rice, cooked lamb and fish, and a luscious raw fish in its entirety atop the pile.

Har Navum

On the 9th day of the month of ashad, Pandits in Kashmir offer the deity Sharika yellow rice cooked with turmeric, a little oil and salt along with tsarvan (goat's liver).

Navreh

The festival of Navreh, the Kashmiri New Year, is incomplete without nadur. A celebration often confused with the Nowruz of the Persians and Persianate cultures, Navreh is the welcoming of spring in the Northern hemisphere, and its date fluctuate, but always around to the March equinox.

Diaspora and fusion cuisines

Tibetan exiles in Kashmir, including members of Tibet's small Muslim population live in Srinagar, mainly in a small area near the 18th-century Hari Parbat fort. Popular momo (beef dumplings) shops and Tibetan restaurants are run by their children. Tibetan options include Cantonese chicken and kumloo wonton, fried pasta stuffed with minced mushrooms.

Kashmiri Sikh cuisine has a bit of influence from Punjab with onions and tomatoes, but the flavouring goes the Kashmiri way with elements such as badyaan (saunf). A large number of Indian tourists depend entirely on Vaishno Dhabas, the Valley's generic non-A/C restaurants that serve all-vegetarian North Indian fare.

Cooking methods

Some Kashmiri cooking techniques are:

Blanching

The stalks of dandelion (haand) with their spiky-edged leaves have to blanched four times so that they bear no bitterness.

Convection

The traditional Kashmir food receives heat on two sides, top and bottom and the best results are obtained by slow heat using charcoal.

Braising

The leaves of Kashmiri haakh are braised in lots of water. It is very important to ensure that the haakh stays submerged underwater during the initial cooking process using a wooden spatula or large spoon to continuously push the greens down. Mustard oil, which is used extensively in Kashmiri cuisine, imparts an extra flavour to the dish.

Court-bouillon

Much of Kashmiri cooking relies on a fragrant meat stock. The main skill of a wazwan lies in the preparation of this stock made of onions and shallots. Freshly shaped meatballs (rista and goshtabeh) are poached in this lamb stock flavoured with cinnamon and black cardamom, and simmered.

Tempering

Whole spices must be fried in oil – clove, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves. Fried too little, and the dish will be lifeless, without fragrance. A second too much, and one will be left with nothing but bitterness. Hot ghee or mustard oil is poured on top and garnished with fried praan (shallots) paste & saffron extract.

Caramelisation

Sliced onions are fried until golden brown and pureed with minimal water.

Emulsification

The yoghurt must be fatty, thick. Dried mint, just a pinch, is added right at the end to freshen the dish.

Food colouring

Relevant dishes are further enhanced in colour by saffron extract (rogan josh and rista) or mawal (dried cockscomb flower). Kashmiri chilli is also added in excess sometimes to produce a red colour. Tomato is incorrectly used as a substitute when mawal and rattanjot are not available. No authentic version cooked in Kashmir has tomatoes.

Simmering

The food gets its flavours and textures from the spices being slow cooked with ingredients until they let out their inherent juices and fats and melt together.

Smoke point

Smoking mustard oil is a treatment known as durust, and gets it ready to use after cooling off.

Dum cooking

The cooking vessel in the shab deg is sealed with dough before being cooked over a simmering fire through the long winter night. Dum cooking was made popular by the Mughal courts around the 16th century.

Tenderising

Goshtabeh and rista, the two meatball dishes are rarely found outside the valley because their unique texture is enormously challenging. The sheep has to be freshly slaughtered and the meat pounded before rigor mortis sets. To incorporate air to make them light and fluffy, the meat undergoes a process of being folded while beaten.

Cooking material

The quality of pots is important, according to wosta (ustad) or chef Nazir Ahmed Aram. He says they must have the right content of copper. Using wood (walnut and apple are the best) is important too. Cooking on gas is not the same.

Similarities with other cuisines

Much like Kashmir, its people, and its narrative traditions, Kashmiri cuisine too is an amalgam of influences from Central Asia, Persia, China, and the Indian subcontinent. Food recipes passed down from one culture to another are:

Aab Gosh (Kashmiri). Abgoosht or Abgusht is more so a one-pot Persian comfort food that is a rustic dish with wholesome ingredients. It has been enjoyed by Persians for centuries. There is a similar dish in Armenia, called Abgoosht stew, using beef instead of lamb.
Batte (Kashmiri). Short-grain, sticky rice is called bata in Afghanistan.
Harise (Kashmiri). Al Harees is a traditional Emirati dish consisting of wheat, meat(chicken) and salt. A simple, traditional Saudi dish using crushed wheat is called jareesh. Harissa, also known as herisseh, harisa or keshkeg in Armenia is a wheat berry and meat porridge. The wheat, usually known as korkot, is shelled making them quicker to cook. Boko Boko Harees in Burundian cuisine is a delicacy prepared with chicken, turmeric and bulgur wheat. Amritsari Hareesa is a famous dish of the winter season in Lahore, Pakistan and made with wheat and meat. It is seasoned with desi ghee and served with hot naan.
Kabab (Kashmiri). The Turkish word kebap derives from Arabic kabaab meaning roasted meat. A likely East Semitic root means to burn, to char or to roast. The Babylonian Talmud even teaches that offerings in the temple should not be kabbaba (burnt). Ibn Battuta, the famous Moroccan traveller mentioned that kebab was an integral part of the daily diet of Indian royalty as early as 1200 AD. Some of the world's best and most flavourful kebabs such as Adana Kebab, Urfa kebab, Iskender kebab come from Turkey's southeastern provinces. The Döner kebab was invented by İskender Efendi, who lived in Bursa and hung meats vertically to grill. One of the most popular kabobs you can find on the streets of Iran is kabob koobideh, ground lamb or beef or a combination of the two. The traditional method of cooking Afghan chapli kebab is frying.
Kahwe (Kashmiri). A staple Afghan tea, kahwah is mild and fragrant, and recipes tend to differ from family to family.
Katlam (Kashmiri). Qatlama in traditional Turkish means folded which comes from the verb qatlamaq (to fold). Plain katmer is eaten with Turkish white cheese and Turkish tea. In Turkmenistan, a type of bread in baked from flour which is mixed with milk and egg. This is called katlama. It is also cooked in Azerbaijan, and various herbs are added to it. The fried Kazakh bread Kattama is very popular in Central Asia. Katama is an onion-filled swirled flatbread from Kyrgyzstan. In Uzbekistan, katlama is a traditional bread of Sunday mornings served with homemade butter. Qatlama is an Afghan fried sweet pastry topped with sugar or sugar syrups. Qator Gambir or Gambir are Mongolian pancakes which may often be a byproduct, when there is leftover dough from making some other dish. Kutluma is a layered Pakistani flatbread with a crispy, buttery texture.
Kulche (Kashmiri). In Afghanistan and Northeast Iran, these dried bread biscuits are called kulcha-e-khataye. Koloocheh in Iranian cuisine is a cookie stuffed with cinnamon, sugar and crushed walnuts.
Lavas (Kashmiri). The word lavash is repeatedly found in early Turkic written sources. Lavash is a Turkish bread made with flour, water and salt. It can be eaten hot or cold. This paper-thin, blanket-sized bread is one of Armenia's most ancient breads and is still being made today. In Azerbaijan, lavash is baked not only in traditional ovens (tandir) but also in saj, a large convex pan under which fire is made. In Azerbaijan and Iran, it is put on the bride's shoulders or crumbled over her head to wish the couple prosperity.
Luchi (Kashmiri). Very similar, Bengali luchai is a deep fried puffed bread.
Nabad (Kashmiri). Nabat in Persian is a type of confectionary mineral composed of relatively large sugar crystals, with bits of saffron in it.
Nadur (Kashmiri). In Afghan cuisine, Qormah e Nadroo is an onion-and-tomato-based stew using lamb meat or veal, yogurt, lotus roots and coriander.
Polav (Kashmiri). It looks as if pilaf was invented in Iran some time after the 10th century.The Turks call plain rice sade pilav. Turkey sees pilav primarily as a side dish rather than a main course. Iran is famous for its polos made with aromatic domsiyah rice. The most characteristic ones are based on fruits such as cherries, quinces, or apricots. In Central Asia, the simplest recipe uses onions, meat and carrots. The extravagant court traditions of the Moghul school of cookery makes India home to some very elaborate pulaos. Laborers from western India brought pilaf to the Caribbean, where it is garnished with butter, almonds and pimiento-stuffed green olives.
Roth(Kashmiri). The Afghan version of the universal West Asian and European sweet egg bread is called rot. In Afghanistan, it is traditionally served when a newborn child is forty days old.
Sheer Chai (Kashmiri). Qaimak or Sheer chai is often served at celebrations in Afghanistan to toast good health.
Yakhein (Kashmiri). Patates Yahni or Greek potato stew is a traditional Greek recipe which falls under the category of ladera, meaning dishes prepared only with olive oil with no addition of other fat. Turkish Yahni is a beef stew that is great in cold weather. A 19th century cookbook by Mehmet Kamil listed a total of 14 classic yakhnis. Yakhni nokhod is a traditional Shirazi dish that uses meat, peas, potatoes, onions, salt and turmeric.
Dam Olav (Kashmiri). Bengali alur dom is lightly spiced and slightly sweet potato curry made with onions, tomatoes and spices.

Etiquette of Kashmiri dining

Kashmiris are gregarious and like to share. Language and Food are the two vital parts of the region's identity. 'One who eats properly shall rule the country' it is said. An interesting wedding tradition from Kashmir involves newlyweds making roti together. While the bride flattens the dough and puts it on the griddle, the groom is responsible for flipping it and making sure it is cooked.Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes. Food connoisseurs can easily taste a single morsel and name the waza (chef) who cooked it. They can smell an aubergine from four other kinds, and tell you which one is from Kashmir. When filmmaker Vivek Agnihotri wrote a presumptuous tweet proposing the idea of vegetarian wazwan, social media erupted in spontaneous protest. Also, Gordon Ramsay, multi-Michelin-starred chef and television personality, found himself at the receiving end of criticism for his Rogan Josh by Kashmiris who commented that the cut of the meat and the gravy were wrong.

In Kashmir, it is said that food should both taste and look good. Its aroma must be appetising. Success of a meal lies in its appeal to the eyes, nose and then the tongue. Any event, from a minor one such as receiving a guest in one's home, to a major one such as a circumcision or a wedding, becomes a celebration of preparing, laying out, serving and consuming together the most delicious victuals. Delicacies are passed on to neighbours to be relished and there is no shame in asking for something when the nostrils are tickled and tempted by the mouth-watering smells from a neighbour's kitchen.

Giant dastarkhaans (white sheets) are spread on the floor on which the meal is served. However humble or lofty the fare on it, the dastarkhaan has always been the center of warm hospitality and conviviality. In big Kashmiri dinners, a hundred to five hundred people are usually invited. Since insurgency and the resultant violence and bloodshed, food has come to hold even greater meaning as each meal signifies a celebration of life itself. It is worth mentioning that wazas (the descendants of Samarkandi cooks), whose shops are located in particular areas of the city of Srinagar, form a significant political group in Kashmir.

All dishes are eaten by hand as Kashmiris believe in an intimate relationship with food. Even spiritual and religious old biddies feel no qualms in chomping on ear cartilage or marrow bones long after the meal is done, pulverising everything into a heap on the thali. No one bats an eyelid. Kashmiris consider it disrespectful if one refuses food varieties or an extra helping. They can go great lengths to persuade, swearing to die if you refuse an extra serving!

Food-related proverbs

Kashmiri language is rich in proverbs and idioms. Food-related idioms include:

Adyav kheyiv chinih adyav kheyiv taki — half the people ate from large dishes, and half from small dishes. A badly arranged dinner.
Akh chhiwyov masah byak hakah rasah — one man is intoxicated with the juice of the grape, another with juice of vegetables. Pride dwells in everyone, whether he be rich or poor.
Akh duda biyi maji kyut toak — an uninvited guest wants a (toak) plateful for his mother, in addition to himself. Toak was an earthen plate, in general use in Kashmir in the past. Beggars and some uninvited people pushed themselves in among the guests because of their poverty, or their desire for tasting the delicacies. It is applied where a person is not content with what is willingly offered to him, and demands more.
Apih hund gyav — a foolish woman's ghee. A foppish person. Kashmiri people, both wealthy and others, rubbed their hair with fresh ghee.
Batah gajih ruhun — as garlic upon the hearth of a Pandit, so your presence is to me. The ancestors of the Hindus would not eat garlic because of their aphrodisiac effects, having devoted themselves to religion.
Batook Poth — to have eaten batook poth (duck's backside) is an expression in Kashmiri for someone who talks a lot.
Chaanis haakhas chha paakuk haajat — does your haakh require hard cooking? A sort of ironic flattery with the sense that your haakh is so delicate, it takes hardly any time to cook.
Chaantis animu mathun — to grease one's mouth with gruel. To cover up starvation for mere shame.
Chayi tani ya gani magar tech gachi cheyn — tea, whether weak or strong, should be taken hot.
Dali Baate ti Khoji thool — dal for a Pandit and an egg for a Khoja, the kind of food they like.
Doori doori marts meethan, nishi nishi naabad tyathaan — pepper tastes sweet from afar, sugar tastes bitter when too near.
Hardas gurus metras, sontah gurus shetras — autumn butter-milk for the friend, and spring butter-milk for the enemy. Consequently, the milk is better in the autumn.
Hari tang tah zulahnai, muhuri tsont tah zulit — if the pear cost only a cowrie it should not be peeled, but if the apple cost a sovereign it should be peeled. Natives of Kashmir seldom skin a pear, but always skin an apple. Apple-skin, they say, is not easily digested.
Haruch gugaj tah Laruch gunas chhih barabar — a June turnip and a Lar serpent are equal. A native would not eat June turnip on any account, while Gunas is a round-headed serpent met with principally in Lar parganah, whose bite is generally fatal.
Majji bhatee — food served by mother is the best food.
Phata Wangun — a burst eggplant, literally, a sly young man often too clever for his own good.
Rogan o zafaran az Pampur, sag az Latapur brinj az Nupur; barrah az Nandapur. Puttu o mahi az Sopur; mong az Kralapur. Arad az Khampur. Shir az Shadipur. Angur az Repur — Pampore (the place) for ghee and saffron, Letapur for vegetables. Nipur for rice. Nandapur for lamb. Sopore for pattu and fish. Kralapur for dal. Khampur for flour. Shadipur for milk. And grapes from Repur.
Talwe peyi na tangah — wishing a pear falls from ceiling is a vain hope.
Chaki pechni ras, yath poshi tas — When someone keeps bragging about this which they usually don't have..
Khar kya zani zaffran kya gow — a donkey won't understand the taste of saffron.
badhshah saab khar ne khewan zab, yeli poras teli kheyi zab — usually said for unthankful people who don't accept food.

Sustainable consumption

Kashmiri women would previously take extra mutton dishes by packing them in old newspapers or plastic bags that they would carry. With time, this tradition became popular, and men soon began travelling with the remaining mutton on their traem (wazwan copper dish). In Kashmir, taking leftover food into carrying bags evolved into a movement, and people also granted it social legitimacy. Even the elites have joined the cause and begun providing specially made carry bags of leftover food. Even the leftover rice is not wasted in marriage functions and is served to animals (dogs, cattle etc.).

In Kashmir, a now-abandoned practice would use green Chinar leaves in packaging delicate things like mulberry, butter, mutton and cheese. This would help these easily contaminable items to stay nontoxic till consumption.