Chinese cuisine/ja: Difference between revisions

During the Qing dynasty, Chinese gastronomes such as [[Yuan Mei]] focused upon the primary goal of extracting the maximum flavour of each ingredient. As noted in his culinary work the ''[[Suiyuan shidan]]'', however, the fashions of cuisine at the time were quite varied and in some cases were flamboyantly ostentatious,especially when the display served also a formal ceremonial purpose, as in the case of the [[Manchu Han Imperial Feast]].

As the pace of life increases in modern China, fast food like [[fried noodles]], [[fried rice]] and ''[[gaifan]]'' (dish over rice) become more and more popular.

==Regional cuisines==

{{main|Chinese regional cuisine}}

[[File:Cuisines of China.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Map showing major regional cuisines of China]]

[[File:狮子头01 (5935161191).jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|"[[Stewed meatball|Lion's head]] with [[crab meat]]" ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=蟹粉獅子頭}}) is a traditional eastern Chinese meatball soup.]]

Chinese cuisine exhibits an immense amount of regional diversity. A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine but perhaps the best known and most influential are [[Guangdong cuisine|Cantonese cuisine]], [[Shandong cuisine]], [[Jiangsu cuisine]] (specifically [[Huaiyang cuisine]]) and [[Sichuan cuisine]]. These styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as availability of resources, climate, [[Geography of China|geography]], [[History of China|history]], cooking techniques and lifestyle.

One style may favour the use of [[garlic]] and [[shallot]]s over chili and spices, while another may favour preparing [[seafood]] over other meats and [[fowl]]. [[Jiangsu cuisine]] favours cooking techniques such as [[braising]] and [[stewing]], while [[Sichuan cuisine]] employs [[baking]]. [[Zhejiang cuisine]] focuses more on serving fresh food, [[Fujian cuisine]] is famous for its seafood and soups and the use of spices, [[Hunan cuisine]] is famous for its hot and salty taste, [[Anhui cuisine]] incorporates wild ingredients for an unusual taste.

Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural differences, a variety of foods with different flavors and textures are prepared in different regions of the country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of [[Food preservation|preservation]] such as [[Drying (food)|drying]], [[Salting (food)|salting]], [[pickling]] and [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]].

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==Staple foods==

  | footer = Staple foods in China: rice, breads and various kinds of noodles

Chinese ancestors successfully planted [[millet]], [[rice]], and other grains about 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. [[Wheat]], another staple, took another three or four thousand years. For the first time, grains provided people with a steady supply of food. Because of the lack of various foods, Chinese people had to adapt to new eating habits. Meat was scarce, and so people cooked with small amounts of meat and rice or noodles.

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===Rice===

[[History of rice cultivation#Asia|Rice was domesticated]] in the Yangtze River basin in southern China approximately 9,000 years ago and is a primary [[staple food]] for people from rice farming areas in southern China. [[Steamed rice]], usually [[white rice]], is the most commonly eaten form. People in South China also like to use rice to make congee as breakfast. Rice is also used to produce [[Beer in China|beer]] and [[vinegar]].  [[Glutinous rice]] ("sticky rice") is a variety of rice used in special dishes such as lotus leaf rice and glutinous rice balls.

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===Wheat===

In wheat-farming areas in [[northern and southern China|Northern China]], people largely rely on [[flour]]-based food, such as [[Chinese noodle|noodles]], ''[[Bing (bread)|bing]]'' (bread), ''[[jiaozi]]'' (a kind of Chinese [[dumpling]]s), and ''[[mantou]]'' (a type of steamed buns). Wheat likely "appeared in the lower Yellow River around 2600 Before Common Era (BCE), followed by Gansu and Xinjiang around 1900 BCE and finally occurred in the middle Yellow River and Tibet regions by 1600 BCE".

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===Noodles===

{{main|Chinese noodles}}

[[Noodle]]s were invented in China over 4,000 years ago and have since spread across the world. [[Chinese noodles]] come dry or fresh in a variety of sizes, shapes and textures and are often served in soups or fried as toppings. Some varieties, such as Shou Mian (寿面, literally noodles of longevity), is an avatar of long life and good health according to Chinese traditions. Noodles can be served hot or cold with different toppings, with broth, and occasionally dry (as is the case with mi-fen).  Noodles are commonly made with rice flour or wheat flour, but other flours such as [[Soy flour|soybean]] are also used in minor groups. Some noodles names describe their methods of creation, such as the hand-pulled noodle.

==Soybean products==

[[File:Tofu - assorted products 01.jpg|thumb|Several kinds of soybean products are sold in a farmer's market in [[Haikou]], China.]]

[[File:Stired-fried_Razor_Clams_with_Black_Beans_and_Pepper.jpg|thumb|Stir-fried [[razor shell]] with ''[[douchi]]'' (fermented black soybeans) in [[Shandong Peninsula|Jiaodong]] style]]

[[Tofu]] is made of [[soybean]]s and is another popular food product that supplies protein. The production process of tofu varies from region to region, resulting in different kinds of tofu with a wide range of texture and taste. Other products such as [[soy milk]], [[soy paste]], [[soy oil]], and fermented [[soy sauce]] are also important in Chinese cooking.

There are many kinds of soybean products, including [[tofu skin]], smoked tofu, dried tofu, and fried tofu.

[[Stinky tofu]] is fermented tofu. Like [[blue cheese]] or [[durian]], it has a very distinct, potent and strong smell, and is an acquired taste. Hard stinky tofu is often deep-fried and paired with soy sauce or salty spice. Soft stinky tofu is usually used as a spread on steamed buns.

[[Doufuru]] is another type of fermented tofu that has a salty taste. Doufuru can be pickled together with soy beans, [[red yeast rice]] or chili to create different color and flavor. This is more of a pickled type of tofu and is not as strongly scented as stinky tofu.  Doufuru has the consistency of slightly soft blue cheese, and a taste similar to Japanese [[miso paste]], but less salty. Doufuru can be used as a spread on steamed buns, or paired with [[Congee|rice congee]].

[[Fermented bean curd|Sufu]] is one other type of fermented tofu that goes through ageing process. The color (red, white, green) and flavor profile can determine the type of sufu it is. This kind of tofu is usually eaten alongside breakfast rice.

==Vegetables==

Apart from vegetables that can be commonly seen, some unique [[vegetables]] used in Chinese cuisine include [[baby corn]], [[bok choy]], [[snow pea]]s, [[China|Chinese]] [[eggplant]], [[Gai lan|Chinese broccoli]], and [[Volvariella volvacea|straw mushrooms]].  Other vegetables, including [[bean sprout]]s, pea vine tips, [[watercress]], [[lotus root]]s, chestnuts, water chestnuts, and [[bamboo shoot]]s, are also used in different cuisines of China.

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==Herbs and seasonings==

  | caption1 = Ingredients of ''[[Five-spice powder|wu xiang fen]]'' (five-spice powder) are Sichuan peppercorn, cloves, cinnamon, fennel seeds, and star anise.

  | caption2 = ''[[Sanbeiji]]'' (three-cup chicken) traditionally is prepared with [[lard]], ''[[jiuniang]]'' (rice wine pudding) and [[soy sauce]].

[[Seasoning]]s such as fresh [[ginger]] root, [[garlic]], [[scallion]], [[cilantro]] and [[sesame]] are widely used in many regional cuisines. [[Sichuan peppercorn]]s, [[star anise]], [[cinnamon]], [[fennel]], [[cloves]] and [[white pepper]]s and [[Polygonum|smart weed]] are also used in different regions.

When it comes to [[sauce]]s, China is home to soy sauce, which is made from fermented soybeans and wheat. A number of sauces are also based on fermented soybeans, including [[hoisin sauce]], ground bean sauce and yellow bean sauce. There are also different sauces preferred by regional cuisines, [[oyster sauce]], [[fish sauce]] and furu (fermented tofu) are also widely used. Vinegar also has a variety with different flavors: clear rice vinegar, [[Zhenjiang Vinegar|Chinkiang black rice vinegar]], Shanxi vinegar, Henghe vinegar etc.

== Meat ==

The most commonly consumed meat in China is [[pork]]. As of at least 2024, China is the second largest beef consuming market in the world. Steakhouses and hot pot restaurants serving beef are becoming increasingly popular in [[Urbanization in China|urban China]]. Chinese consumers particularly value freshly slaughtered beef.

==Desserts and snacks==

{{Main|Chinese desserts|Chinese pastries}}

{{see also|List of Chinese desserts}}

| caption1          = Different ''gāo diǎn'' (traditional Chinese pastry) with different stuffing, including [[lotus seed]], rose, and mixture of pea and [[jackbean]]

| caption2          = [[Egg tart|Egg custard tart]] is a type of ''xī diǎn'' (Western pastry) originally from Portugal and gain its popularity through [[Hong Kong]].

[[Dim sum]] (点心), originally means a small portion of food, can refer to dessert, or pastries. Later to avoid disambiguation, tian dian (甜点) and gao dian (糕点) are used to describe desserts and pastries.

Besides being served as dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional festivals. The most famous one is [[moon cake]], used to celebrate the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]].

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A wide variety of [[Chinese desserts]] are available, mainly including steamed and boiled sweet snacks. [[Bing (Chinese flatbread)|Bing]] is an umbrella term for all breads in Chinese, also including pastries and sweets. These are baked wheat-flour-based confections, with different stuffings including [[red bean paste]], [[jujube]], and a variety of others. Su (酥) is another kind of pastry made with more amount of oil, making the confection more friable. Chinese candies and sweets, called ''táng'' (糖) are usually made with [[Sugarcane|cane sugar]], malt sugar, honey, nuts, and fruit. [[Kueh|Gao or Guo]] are rice-based snacks that are typically steamed and may be made from glutinous or normal rice.

Another cold dessert is called ''baobing'', which is [[shaved ice]] with sweet syrup. Chinese jellies are known collectively in the language as ''ices''. Many jelly desserts are traditionally set with agar and are flavoured with fruits, known as guodong (果冻), though [[gelatine]] based jellies are also common in contemporary desserts.

European pastries are also seen in China, like [[mille-feuille]], [[crème brûlée]], and [[cheesecake]], but they are generally not as popular because the Chinese preference of dessert is mildly sweet and less oily.

[[File:Baozi Chengdu.JPG|thumb|''[[Baozi|Bāozi]]'' are steamed buns containing savoury or sweet combinations of meat, vegetables, and mushrooms, traditionally associated with breakfast.]]

Many types of street foods, which vary from region to region, can be eaten as snacks or light dinner. [[Prawn cracker]]s are an often-consumed snack in Southeast China.

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===Dairy products===

Chinese in earlier dynasties evidently drank milk and ate dairy products, although not necessarily from cows, but ''[[kumis]]'' (fermented mare's milk) or goat's milk.

Historically, many Chinese chefs tried not to use milk, because of the high rate of [[Lactose intolerance#Epidemiology|lactose intolerance among the Chinese population]]. However, today, dairy products are increasingly used in Chinese cuisine, such as the "[[double skin milk]]" dessert in Guangdong Province, the Rubing (milk cake) cheese in [[Yunnan]], and [[yoghurt]] in Qinghai and Xinjiang. China has a wide variety of dairy desserts that are very popular.

== Cold dishes ==

{{See also|Chinese pickles}}

  | caption1 = Stewed pig's ear as [[lou mei]] is usually served cold.

  | caption2 = ''Pídàn dòufǔ'' ([[century egg]] and [[tofu]])

[[Chinese sausage]]s vary from region to region. The most common sausage is made of pork and pork fat. The flavor is generally salty-sweet in Southern China. In other parts of China, sausages are salted to be preserved. Chinese sausage is prepared in many different ways, including oven-roasting, stir-frying, and [[steaming]].

==Soups==

{{Main|Chinese soup}}

{{see also|List of Chinese soups}}

[[File:Tougan shrimp soup.jpg|thumb|''Dōngguā xiārén fěnsī tāng'' (winter melon, shrimp and cellophane noodle soup)]]

In some part of South China, soups are served between the cold dishes and the main dishes. In other parts of China, soups are served between the main dish and staple foods, before desserts or fruit salad. There are many traditional Chinese soups, such as [[wonton]] soup, herbal chicken soup, [[hot and sour soup]], [[winter melon soup]], and so on.

==Drinks==

Tea plays an important role in Chinese dining culture. In China, there are two main types of tea, one is made from dried tea leaves, the other one is made by extracts from tea leaves. [[Baijiu]] and [[huangjiu]] as strong alcoholic beverages are preferred by many people as well. Wine is not so popular as other drinks in China that are consumed whilst dining, although they are usually available in the menu.

===Tea===

{{Main|Chinese tea}}

[[File:Longjing tea 3.jpg|thumb|[[Longjing tea]], also known as Dragon Well tea, is a variety of roasted green tea from [[Hangzhou]], [[Zhejiang]] Province, China, where it is produced mostly by hand and has been renowned for its high quality, earning the [[China Famous Tea]] title.]]

As well as with dim sum, many Chinese drink their tea with snacks such as nuts, plums, dried fruit (in particular [[jujube]]), small sweets, melon seeds, and [[Myrica rubra|waxberry]]. China was the earliest country to cultivate and drink tea, which is enjoyed by people from all social classes. Tea processing began after the [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] and [[Han dynasty|Han]] dynasties.

The different types of Chinese tea include black, white, green, yellow, oolong, and dark tea. Chinese tea is often classified into several different categories according to the variety of the tea plant from which it is sourced, the region in which it is grown, and the method of production used. Some of these types are [[green tea]], [[oolong tea]], black tea, scented tea, [[white tea]], and [[compressed tea]]. There are four major [[tea plantation]] regions: [[Jiangbei District, Ningbo|Jiangbei]], [[Jiangnan]], [[South China|Huanan]] and the [[Southwestern China|southwestern region]]. Well known types of green tea include [[Longjing tea|Longjing]], [[Huangshan Maofeng]], [[Bilochun]], [[Putuofeng Cha]], and [[Liu'an Guapian]]. China is the world's largest exporter of green tea.

===Alcoholic beverages===

{{Main|Chinese alcoholic beverages}}

[[File:Baijiu in Haikou 2018 09 11.jpg|thumb|Baijiu]]

The importance of ''[[baijiu]]'' (<small>lit.</small> "white liquor") in China (99.5% of its alcoholic market) makes it the most-consumed alcoholic spirit in the world. It dates back to the introduction of distilling during the [[Song dynasty]]; can be made from wheat, corn, or rice; and is usually around 120 proof (60% ABV). The most ubiquitous brand is the cheap [[Er guo tou]], but [[Mao Tai]] is the premium ''baijiu''. Other popular brands include Kang, Lu Zhou Te Qu, and Wu Liang Ye.

[[File:Chinese-wine-Hua-Tiao.jpg|thumb|Huangjiu]]

''[[Huangjiu]]'' (<small>lit.</small> "yellow liquor") is not distilled and is a strong [[rice wine]] (10–15% ABV). Popular brands include [[Shaoxing Lao Jiu]], [[Shaoxing Hua Diao]], and [[Te Jia Fan]].

While fermented grain beverages have been brewed in China for over 9,000 years, it has been long overshadowed by stronger alcohol like [[Baijiu]] and [[Huangjiu]].

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===Herbal drinks===

{{Main|Chinese herb tea}}

[[File:HK Sweet Fruit 羅漢果 Luo Han Guo 煲水 cooking water Fructus Momordicae 003.JPG|thumb|herb tea]]

Chinese herb tea, also known as ''medicinal herbal tea'', is a kind of tea made from Chinese medicinal [[herb]]s.

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===Other beverages===

Soy milk, [[almond milk]], walnut milk and coconut milk are also drunk during the meal in different regions. In some parts of China, [[Crataegus|hawthorn]] and [[jujube]] juice are preferred.  A small shot of fruit vinegar is served as an appetizer in [[Shanxi]].

==Outside China==

[[File:Billyzhajiang1.jpg|thumb|''[[Zhajiangmian|Zhájiàng Miàn]]'' (noodles with bean paste) is a traditional northern Chinese dish. It has spread to South Korea where it is known as ''[[Jajangmyeon]]''.]]

Where there are historical immigrant Chinese populations, the style of food has evolved and been adapted to local tastes and ingredients, and modified by the local cuisine, to greater or lesser extents. This has resulted in a deep Chinese influence on other national cuisines such as [[Cambodian cuisine]], [[Filipino cuisine]], [[Singaporean cuisine]], [[Thai cuisine]] and [[Vietnamese cuisine]].

[[Chinatown]]s across the world have been instrumental in shaping the national cuisines of their respective countries, such as the introduction of a [[Street food of Thailand|street food culture to Thailand]] in [[Chinatown, Bangkok|Bangkok Chinatown]]. There are also a large number of forms of [[fusion cuisine]], often popular in the country in question. Some, such as [[ramen]] ([[Japanese Chinese cuisine]]), which originated in [[Yokohama Chinatown]], have become popular internationally.

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Deep-fried meat combined with [[sweet and sour]] sauce as a cooking style receives an enormous preference outside of China. Therefore, many similar international Chinese cuisines are invented based on sweet and sour sauce, including Sweet and sour chicken (Europe and North America), Manchurian chicken (India) or ''[[tangsuyuk]]'' (South Korea).

[[File:Mango pancake.jpg|thumb|'''Mango pancake''']]

Apart from the host country, the dishes developed in overseas Chinese cuisines are heavily dependent on the cuisines derived from the origin of the Chinese immigrants. In [[Korean Chinese cuisine]], the dishes derive primarily from [[Shandong cuisine]] while [[Filipino Chinese cuisine]] is strongly influenced by [[Fujian cuisine]]. [[American Chinese cuisine]] has distinctive dishes (such as [[chop suey]]) originally based on [[Cantonese cuisine]], which are more popular among non-Chinese Americans than with [[Chinese Americans]] themselves.

* [[American Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Chop suey]], [[crab rangoon]], [[General Tso's chicken]], [[egg foo young]], [[orange chicken]]

* [[Australian Chinese cuisine]]

** Mango pancake, [[dim sim]], XO sauce pipis

* [[British Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Chicken balls]], Jar jow

* [[Chinese people in Myanmar#Cuisine|Burmese Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Kyay oh]], [[Sigyet khauk swè]]

* [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Ginger beef]]

* [[Caribbean Chinese cuisine]]

** Cha chee kai, bangamary ding

* [[Filipino Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Arroz caldo]], [[Batchoy]], [[Pancit]]

* [[Indian Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Gobi manchurian]], [[Manchow soup]]

* [[Indonesian Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Bakso]], [[Cap cai]], [[Lumpia]], [[Mie ayam]], [[Mie goreng]], [[Swikee]], [[Siomay]], [[Crab in oyster sauce|Kepiting saus tiram]]

* [[Japanese Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Champon]], [[Ramen]], [[Gyoza]], [[Kakuni]], [[Tenshindon]]

* [[Korean Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Jajangmyeon]], [[jjamppong]], [[hotteok]], [[Tangsuyuk]]

* [[Chinese Latin American cuisine]]

** [[Chifa|Peruvian Chinese cuisine]] (Chifa)

*** [[Arroz chaufa]], [[Lomo saltado]]

** [[Puerto Rican Chinese cuisine]]

*** Carne Ahumada

* [[Malaysian Chinese cuisine]]/[[Singaporean cuisine#Chinese-inspired|Singapore Chinese cuisine]]

*** [[Hainanese chicken rice]], [[Bak kut teh]], [[Heong Peng]], [[Yam ring]], [[Kaya toast]] (often seen in [[kopitiam]])

** [[Peranakan cuisine]]

*** [[Laksa]] (include [[Curry mee]]), [[Ayam buah keluak]], [[Pie tee]]

* [[New Zealand Chinese cuisine]]

* [[Pakistani Chinese cuisine]]

** [[Jalfrezi]]

==Dining etiquette==

{{Main|Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining}}

[[File:Song Dynasty silver chopsticks, cup, and spoon.JPG|thumb|Silverware from the Song dynasty (10th–13th centuries): Chopsticks, bowl and spoon]]

Youths should not begin eating before their elders do. When eating from a bowl, one should not hold it with its bottom part, because it resembles the act of begging. [[Chopsticks]] are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut and pick up food. When someone is taking a break from eating at the table, they should not put the chopstick into the rice vertically, because it resembles the Chinese traditional funeral tribute, which involves putting chopsticks inside a bowl of rice vertically. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on the dining table. Chopsticks should not be waved around in the air or played with. Food should first be taken from the plate in front. It is considered impolite to stare at a plate. Watching TV, using mobile phones or doing other activities while eating is considered in poor taste. If an older person puts food in a younger person's bowl, the younger person should thank them.

Chinese culture has guidelines in how and when food are eaten. Chinese people typically eat three meals a day, consisting of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Breakfast is served around 6–9am, lunch is served around 12–2pm, and dinner is served around 6–9pm. A late night, fourth meal of the day is known as [[siu yeh]] and served from 9pm-4am, which is similar to the Western concept of [[supper]]. Within the Chinese culture, families do follow different traditions. In some families, the elderly members and youngsters get their meal first, then the mother and father, and then the children and teenagers. Other families have the male and female eat separately at different seating area. Whatever tradition the family decide to follow, it is intended to show respect to members of the family.

== Relation to Chinese philosophy and religion ==

[[File:Mooncake1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mooncake]], eaten during the Mid-Autumn Festival]]

Food plays various roles in social and cultural life. In [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Ancestor veneration in China|ancestor veneration]] is conducted by offering food to ancestors and Chinese festivals involve the consumption and preparation of specific foods which have symbolic meanings attached to them. Specific religions in China have their own cuisines such as the [[Taoist diet]], [[Buddhist cuisine]] and [[Chinese Islamic Cuisine]].

The [[Kaifeng Jews]] in [[Henan]] province once had their own Chinese Jewish cuisine but the community has largely died out in the modern era and not much is known about the specifics of their cuisine but they did influence foods eaten in their region and some of their dishes remain. Chinese dishes with purported Kaifeng Jewish roots include Kaifeng xiao long bao, Mayuxing bucket-shaped chicken, Chrysanthemum hot pot, and Four Treasures.

Depending on whether one chooses to have rice or a meal that is made of wheat flour such as bread or noodles as their main source of food, people within a similar culture or of a different background can make an assumption of the other's country of origin from the south or north of China. Different foods have different symbolic meanings. [[Mooncake]]s and [[dumpling]]s are symbolic of the [[Mid-Autumn Festival|Mid-autumn festival]] and the Spring Festival, respectively. [[Pear]] symbolizes bad luck due to its similarity in pronunciation of 'away' in the native language and noodle means living a long life for its length.