Created page with "インドのアーユルヴェーダの影響を受けている可能性はあるが、インドネシア群島にはインドにはない固有の植物が数多くあり、ウォレス・ラインを越えたオーストラリアにも似た植物がある。ジャムーの慣習は地域によって異なることがあり、特に国内の遠隔地では記録されていないことが多い..."
(39 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
[[File:Eucalyptus olida distillation1.JPG|thumb|right|Leaves of ''[[Eucalyptus olida]]'' being packed into a steam [[distillation]] unit to gather its [[essential oil]]]]
There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, the most common of which is a liquid consumed as a herbal tea or a (possibly diluted) plant extract.
[[Herbal tea]]s, or tisanes, are the resultant liquid of extracting herbs into water, though they are made in a few different ways. [[Infusion]]s are hot water extracts of herbs, such as [[Matricaria recutita|chamomile]] or [[Mentha|mint]], through [[steeping]]. [[Decoction]]s are the long-term boiled extracts, usually of harder substances like roots or bark. [[Maceration (wine)|Maceration]] is the cold infusion of plants with high [[mucilage]]-content, such as [[Common sage|sage]] or [[thyme]]. To make macerates, plants are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left to stand for 7 to 12 hours (depending on herb used). For most macerates, 10 hours is used.
[[Tincture]]s are alcoholic extracts of herbs, which are generally stronger than herbal teas. Tinctures are usually obtained by combining pure ethanol (or a mixture of pure ethanol with water) with the herb. A completed tincture has an ethanol percentage of at least 25% (sometimes up to 90%). Non-alcoholic tinctures can be made with glycerin but it is believed to be less absorbed by the body than alcohol based tinctures and has a shorter shelf life. Herbal wine and [[elixir]]s are alcoholic extract of herbs, usually with an ethanol percentage of 12–38%. [[Extract]]s include liquid extracts, dry extracts, and nebulisates. Liquid extracts are liquids with a lower ethanol percentage than tinctures. They are usually made by vacuum [[Distillation|distilling]] tinctures. Dry extracts are extracts of plant material that are [[Evaporation|evaporated]] into a dry mass. They can then be further refined to a capsule or tablet.
The exact composition of an herbal product is influenced by the method of extraction. A tea will be rich in [[Chemical polarity|polar]] components because water is a [[polar solvent]]. Oil on the other hand is a [[non-polar]] solvent and it will absorb non-polar compounds. Alcohol lies somewhere in between.
Many herbs are applied topically to the skin in a variety of forms. [[Essential oil]] extracts can be applied to the skin, usually diluted in a carrier oil. Many essential oils can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight; diluting them in olive oil or another food grade oil such as almond oil can allow these to be used safely as a topical. [[Salve]]s, oils, [[Liniment|balm]]s, creams, and lotions are other forms of topical delivery mechanisms. Most topical applications are oil extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for anywhere from weeks to months allows certain phytochemicals to be extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into salves, creams, lotions, or simply used as an oil for topical application. Many massage oils, antibacterial salves, and wound healing compounds are made this way.
[[File:Datura stramonium - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-051.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Datura stramonium]]'' has been used in Ayurveda for various treatments, but contains [[alkaloid]]s, such as [[atropine]] and [[scopolamine]], which may cause severe toxicity.]]
Consumption of herbs may cause [[adverse effect]]s. Furthermore, "adulteration, inappropriate formulation, or lack of understanding of plant and drug interactions have led to adverse reactions that are sometimes life threatening or lethal." Proper double-blind clinical trials are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of each plant before medical use.
Although many consumers believe that herbal medicines are safe because they are natural, herbal medicines and synthetic drugs may interact, causing toxicity to the consumer. Herbal remedies can also be dangerously contaminated, and herbal medicines without established efficacy, may unknowingly be used to replace prescription medicines.
Standardization of purity and dosage is not mandated in the United States, but even products made to the same specification may differ as a result of biochemical variations within a species of plant. Plants have chemical defense mechanisms against predators that can have adverse or lethal effects on humans. Examples of highly toxic herbs include poison hemlock and nightshade. They are not marketed to the public as herbs, because the risks are well known, partly due to a long and colorful history in Europe, associated with "sorcery", "magic" and intrigue. Although not frequent, adverse reactions have been reported for herbs in widespread use. On occasion serious untoward outcomes have been linked to herb consumption. A case of major potassium depletion has been attributed to chronic licorice ingestion, and consequently professional herbalists avoid the use of licorice where they recognize that this may be a risk. Black cohosh has been implicated in a case of liver failure.
Few studies are available on the safety of herbs for pregnant women, and one study found that use of complementary and alternative medicines are associated with a 30% lower ongoing pregnancy and live birth rate during fertility treatment.
Examples of herbal treatments with likely cause-effect relationships with adverse events include [[Consolida|aconite]] (which is often a legally restricted herb), [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic remedies]], [[Genisteae|broom]], [[chaparral]], Chinese herb mixtures, [[comfrey]], herbs containing certain flavonoids, [[germander]], [[guar gum]], [[liquorice root]], and [[Mentha pulegium|pennyroyal]]. Examples of herbs that may have long-term adverse effects include [[ginseng]], the endangered herb [[goldenseal]], [[milk thistle]], [[Senna (plant)|senna]] (against which herbalists generally advise and rarely use), [[Aloe vera|aloe vera juice]], [[Rhamnus (plant)|buckthorn bark and berry]], [[Frangula purshiana|cascara sagrada bark]], [[Serenoa|saw palmetto]], [[Valerian (herb)|valerian]], [[kava]] (which is banned in the European Union), [[St. John's wort]], [[khat]], [[Areca nut|betel nut]], the restricted herb [[Ephedra (medicine)|ephedra]], and [[guarana]].
There is also concern with respect to the numerous well-established interactions of herbs and drugs. In consultation with a physician, usage of herbal remedies should be clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse drug interactions when used in combination with various prescription and [[over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter]] pharmaceuticals, just as a customer should inform a herbalist of their consumption of actual prescription and other medication.
For example, dangerously low blood pressure may result from the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressure together with prescription medicine that has the same effect. Some herbs may amplify the effects of anticoagulants.
ある種のハーブや一般的な果物は、多くの薬物代謝に重要な酵素であるシトクロームP450を阻害する。
Certain herbs as well as common fruit interfere with cytochrome P450, an enzyme critical to much drug metabolism.
In a 2018 study, FDA identified active [[medication|pharmaceutical additives]] in over 700 of analyzed dietary supplements sold as "herbal", "natural" or "traditional". The undisclosed additives included "unapproved antidepressants and designer steroids", as well as [[prescription drug]]s, such as [[sildenafil]] or [[sibutramine]].
A 2013 study found that one-third of herbal supplements sampled contained no trace of the herb listed on the label. The study found products adulterated with contaminants or [[filler (materials)|fillers]] not listed on the label, including potential allergens such as [[soy]], [[wheat]], or [[black walnut]]. One bottle labeled as [[St. John's wort]] was found to actually contain ''[[Alexandrian senna]]'', a laxative.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
[[:en:University of Adelaide|アデレード大学]]の研究者たちが2014年に発見したところによると、販売条件であるにもかかわらず、調査対象となったハーブ療法のほぼ20パーセントが[[:en:Therapeutic Goods Administration|治療用品管理局]]に登録されていなかった。また、調査対象となった製品の60%近くが、ラベルに記載されているものと一致しない成分を含んでいた。121の製品のうち、TGAのリストとパッケージが一致する成分があったのはわずか15であった。
Researchers at the [[University of Adelaide]] found in 2014 that almost 20 percent of herbal remedies surveyed were not registered with the [[Therapeutic Goods Administration]], despite this being a condition for their sale. They also found that nearly 60 percent of products surveyed had ingredients that did not match what was on the label. Out of 121 products, only 15 had ingredients that matched their TGA listing and packaging.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
2015年、[[:en:New York Attorney General|ニューヨーク検事総長]]は、誤ったラベルが貼られ、潜在的に危険なハーブサプリメントを販売していたとして告発された米国の大手小売業者4社([[:en:GNC (store)|GNC]]、[[Target Corporation|Target]]、[[Walgreens Boots Alliance|Walgreens]]、[[Walmart]])に[[:en:cease and desist|販売停止命令]]の書簡を出した。調査の一環として24の製品が[[DNA barcoding/ja|DNAバーコーディング]]によって検査され、5つを除くすべての製品が製品ラベルと一致しないDNAを含んでいた。
In 2015, the [[New York Attorney General]] issued [[cease and desist]] letters to four major U.S. retailers ([[GNC (store)|GNC]], [[Target Corporation|Target]], [[Walgreens]], and [[Walmart]]) who were accused of selling herbal supplements that were mislabeled and potentially dangerous. Twenty-four products were tested by [[DNA barcoding]] as part of the investigation, with all but five containing DNA that did not match the product labels.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
===ハーバリズムの実践者たち===
===Practitioners of herbalism===
[[File:Picking of heads of Arnica montana.JPG|thumb|right|ハーバリストが''[[Arnica montana/ja|アルニカ・モンタナ]]''の花の頭を集めている。]]
[[File:Picking of heads of Arnica montana.JPG|thumb|right|A herbalist gathers the flower heads of ''[[Arnica montana]]''.]]
In some countries, formalized training and minimum education standards exist for herbalists, although these are not necessarily uniform within or between countries. In Australia, for example, the self-regulated status of the profession (as of 2009) resulted in variable standards of training, and numerous loosely formed associations setting different educational standards. One 2009 review concluded that regulation of herbalists in Australia was needed to reduce the risk of interaction of herbal medicines with [[prescription drug]]s, to implement clinical guidelines and prescription of herbal products, and to assure self-regulation for protection of public health and safety. In the United Kingdom, the training of herbalists is done by state-funded universities offering Bachelor of Science degrees in herbal medicine. In the United States, according to the American Herbalist Guild, "there is currently no licensing or certification for herbalists in any state that precludes the rights of anyone to use, dispense, or recommend herbs." However, there are U.S. federal restrictions for marketing herbs as cures for medical conditions, or essentially practicing as an unlicensed physician.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
===米国のハーバリズム詐欺===
===United States herbalism fraud===
2017年から21年にかけて、[[U.S. Food and Drug Administration/ja|米国食品医薬品局]](FDA)は、そのような証拠が存在しないにもかかわらず、「疾病の診断、治癒、緩和、治療、または予防における使用を意図しているため、および/または身体の構造または何らかの機能に影響を及ぼすことを意図しているため、法201条(g)(1)[合衆国法典第21編第321条(g)(1)]に基づく薬物であることを引き起こす条件」で製品を違法に販売しているとして、多数のハーバリズム企業に対して[[:en:FDA warning letter|警告書]]を発行した。[[COVID-19 pandemic/ja|COVID-19パンデミック]]の際、FDAと米国[[:en:Federal Trade Commission|連邦取引委員会]]は、ハーブ製品が[[Coronavirus disease 2019/ja|COVID-19病]]を予防または治療できるという虚偽の主張を宣伝したとして、数百のアメリカ企業に[[:en:FDA warning letter|警告]]を出した。
Over the years 2017–21, the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) issued [[FDA warning letter|warning letters]] to numerous herbalism companies for illegally marketing products under "conditions that cause them to be drugs under section 201(g)(1) of the Act [21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)], because they are intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease and/or intended to affect the structure or any function of the body" when no such evidence existed. During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the FDA and U.S. [[Federal Trade Commission]] issued [[FDA warning letter|warnings]] to several hundred American companies for promoting false claims that herbal products could prevent or treat [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19 disease]].
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
===政府の規制===
===Government regulations===
[[World Health Organization/ja|世界保健機関]](WHO)は、国際的な公衆衛生に関わる国連(UN)の専門機関であるが、1998年に''薬用植物原料の品質管理法''を発表し、WHO加盟国が本草学の品質保証と管理の全体的な文脈の中で、本草原料の品質基準と規格を確立することを支援している。
The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), the specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with international public health, published ''Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials'' in 1998 to support WHO Member States in establishing quality standards and specifications for herbal materials, within the overall context of quality assurance and control of herbal medicines.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
[[:en:European Union|欧州連合]](EU)では、本草学は[[:en:Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products|ハーブ医薬品委員会]]の下で規制されている。
In the [[European Union]] (EU), herbal medicines are regulated under the [[Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products]].
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
米国では、ハーブ療法は[[Food and Drug Administration (United States)/ja|食品医薬品局]](FDA)によって、[[dietary supplements/ja|栄養補助食品]]の[[good manufacturing practice/ja|現行の適正製造規範]](cGMP)方針の下で規制されている。このカテゴリーに分類される製品の製造業者は、「医学的」な主張をしたり、「栄養補助食品」以外の用途を示唆したりしない限り、製品の安全性や有効性を証明する必要はないが、有害性が証明された場合には、FDAは製品の販売を取りやめることがある。
In the United States, herbal remedies are regulated [[dietary supplements]] by the [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) under [[good manufacturing practice|current good manufacturing practice]] (cGMP) policy for dietary supplements. Manufacturers of products falling into this category are not required to prove the safety or efficacy of their product so long as they do not make 'medical' claims or imply uses other than as a 'dietary supplement', though the FDA may withdraw a product from sale should it prove harmful.
Canadian regulations are described by the Natural and Non-prescription Health Products Directorate which requires an eight-digit Natural Product Number or Homeopathic Medicine Number on the label of licensed herbal medicines or dietary supplements.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
ハーブの中には[[cannabis (drug)/ja|大麻]]や[[coca/ja|コカ]]のように、ほとんどの国で全面的に禁止されているものもあるが、コカは栽培されている南米諸国のほとんどでは合法である。[[cannabis/ja|''大麻''植物]]はハーブ[[medical cannabis/ja|医学]]として使用されるため、世界の一部では[[:en:legal status of cannabis|合法]]である。2004年以降、栄養補助食品としての[[Ephedra (medicine)/ja|エフェドラ]]の販売は、アメリカではFDAによって禁止されており、イギリスではスケジュールIIIの規制対象となっている。
Some herbs, such as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and [[coca]], are outright banned in most countries though coca is legal in most of the South American countries where it is grown. The [[Cannabis|''Cannabis'' plant]] is used as an herbal [[medical cannabis|medicine]], and as such is [[legal status of cannabis|legal]] in some parts of the world. Since 2004, the sales of [[Ephedra (medicine)|ephedra]] as a dietary supplement is prohibited in the United States by the FDA, and subject to Schedule III restrictions in the United Kingdom.
Herbalism has been criticized as a potential "[[land mine|minefield]]" of unreliable product quality, safety hazards, and potential for misleading health advice. Globally, there are no standards across various herbal products to authenticate their contents, safety or efficacy, and there is generally an absence of high-quality scientific research on product composition or effectiveness for anti-disease activity. Presumed claims of therapeutic benefit from herbal products, without rigorous evidence of efficacy and safety, receive skeptical views by scientists.
Unethical practices by some herbalists and manufacturers, which may include false advertising about health benefits on product labels or literature, and contamination or use of fillers during product preparation, may erode [[consumer confidence]] about services and products.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
==パラハーバリズム==
==Paraherbalism==
{{Anchor|Paraherbalism}}
[[File:Cinchona officinalis 001.JPG|thumb|right|An example of a herbal medicine resource: the bark of the [[cinchona]] tree contains [[quinine]], which today is a widely prescribed treatment for [[malaria]]. The unpurified bark is still used by some who can not afford to purchase more expensive antimalarial drugs.]]
'''Paraherbalism''' is the [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] use of [[extract]]s of plant or animal origin as supposed medicines or health-promoting agents. Phytotherapy differs from plant-derived medicines in standard [[pharmacology]] because it does not isolate and [[Standardization|standardize]] the compounds from a given plant believed to be biologically active. It relies on the false belief that preserving the complexity of substances from a given plant with less processing is safer and potentially more effective, for which there is no evidence either condition applies.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
植物化学の研究者である[[:en:Varro Eugene Tyler|ヴァロ・ユージーン・タイラー]]は、パラハーバリズムを「偽科学に基づく欠陥のある、あるいは劣ったハーバリズム」と表現し、科学的な用語を使っているが、安全性と効能に関する科学的な証拠が欠けているとした。タイラーは、ハーバリズムとパラハーバリズムを区別する10の[[:en:fallacy|誤謬]]を挙げた。その中には、安全で効果的なハーブを弾圧する[[:en:conspiracy theory|陰謀]]がある、ハーブは害を引き起こすことはない、ハーブ全体は植物から分離された分子よりも効果的である、ハーブは薬物よりも優れている、などの主張が含まれる、 [[:en:doctrine of signatures|シグネチャーの教義]](植物の形状がその機能を示すという信念)は有効であり、物質の希釈は効力を増大させる([[homeopathy/ja|ホメオパシー]]という疑似科学の教義)、占星術の配置は重要であり、人体への影響を示すのに動物実験は適切ではなく、[[:en:anecdotal evidence|逸話的証拠]]は物質が効くことを証明する効果的な手段であり、ハーブは病気を治すために神によって創造された。タイラー氏は、これらの信念はどれも事実無根であることを示唆している。
Phytochemical researcher [[Varro Eugene Tyler]] described paraherbalism as "faulty or inferior herbalism based on pseudoscience", using scientific terminology but lacking scientific evidence for safety and efficacy. Tyler listed ten [[fallacy|fallacies]] that distinguished herbalism from paraherbalism, including claims that there is a [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy]] to suppress safe and effective herbs, herbs can not cause harm, that whole herbs are more effective than molecules isolated from the plants, herbs are superior to drugs, the [[doctrine of signatures]] (the belief that the shape of the plant indicates its function) is valid, dilution of substances increases their potency (a doctrine of the pseudoscience of [[homeopathy]]), astrological alignments are significant, animal testing is not appropriate to indicate human effects, [[anecdotal evidence]] is an effective means of proving a substance works and herbs were created by God to cure disease. Tyler suggests that none of these beliefs have any basis in fact.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
==伝統的なシステム==
==Traditional systems==
{{Anchor|Traditional systems}}
{{See also|Traditional medicine}}
{{See also/ja|Traditional medicine/ja}}
[[File:Xi'an traditionnal medecine market (18).JPG|thumb|right|Ready to drink [[Maceration (wine)|macerated]] medicinal liquor with [[goji berry]], [[tokay gecko]], and [[ginseng]], for sale at a traditional medicine market in [[Xi'an]], China.]]
In [[Andes|Andean]] healing practices, the use of [[Entheogen]]s, in particular the San Pedro cactus (''[[Echinopsis pachanoi]]'') is still a vital component, and has been around for millennia.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
===中国===
===China===
西洋医学と[[traditional Chinese medicine/ja|伝統中国医学]]の両方の訓練を受けた研究者の中には、現代科学に照らして古代の医学書を解体しようと試みた者もいる。1972年、製薬化学者であるトゥー・ユーユーが、[[sweet wormwood/ja|甘蓬]]から抗マラリア薬物[[artemisinin/ja|アルテミシニン]]を抽出した。
Some researchers trained in both Western and [[traditional Chinese medicine]] have attempted to deconstruct ancient medical texts in the light of modern science. In 1972, Tu Youyou, a pharmaceutical chemist, extracted the anti-malarial drug [[artemisinin]] from [[sweet wormwood]], a traditional Chinese treatment for intermittent fevers.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
===インド===
===India===
[[File:Herbal medicine platter.jpg|thumb|インド・ゴアの本草学大皿]]
[[File:Herbal medicine platter.jpg|thumb|A platter of herbal medicines at Goa, India]]
In India, [[Ayurvedic medicine]] has quite complex formulas with 30 or more ingredients, including a sizable number of ingredients that have undergone "[[alchemy|alchemical processing]]", chosen to balance [[dosha]]. In Ladakh, Lahul-Spiti, and Tibet, the [[Tibetan Medicine|Tibetan Medical System]] is prevalent, also called the "Amichi Medical System". Over 337 species of [[medicinal plant]]s have been documented by [[C.P. Kala]]. Those are used by Amchis, the practitioners of this medical system. The Indian book, Vedas, mentions treatment of diseases with plants.
[[File:Jamu.jpg|thumb|right|Different types of Indonesian [[jamu]] herbal medicines held in bottles]]
[[:ja:インドネシア|インドネシア]]、特に[[:en:Javanese people|ジャワ人]]の間では、[[jamu/ja|ジャムー]]という伝統的な本草学は、1300年ほど前の[[:en:Mataram Kingdom|マタラム王国]]の時代に生まれたと考えられている。[[:en:Borobudur|ボロブドゥール]]の[[:en:bas-relief|浮き彫り]]には、石の[[:en:mortar and pestle|臼と乳棒]]で薬草を挽く人々、酒売り、薬草師、[[:en:masseuse|マッサージ師]]が人々を治療する姿が描かれている。[[:en:Majapahit|マジャパヒト]]時代のマダワプラ碑文には、''Acaraki''と呼ばれる薬草調合師(ハーバリスト)という特定の職業が記されている。1700年頃の[[:en:Mataram Sultanate|マタラム]]の書物には3,000のジャムウ・ハーバル・レシピが記載されており、ジャワ古典文学[[:en:Serat Centhini|Serat Centhini]] (1814)にはいくつかのジャムウ・ハーバル調合レシピが記載されている。
In [[Indonesia]], especially among the [[Javanese people|Javanese]], the [[jamu]] traditional herbal medicine may have originated in the [[Mataram Kingdom]] era, some 1300 years ago. The [[bas-relief]]s on [[Borobudur]] depict the image of people grinding herbs with stone [[mortar and pestle]], a drink seller, an herbalist, and [[masseuse]] treating people. The Madhawapura inscription from [[Majapahit]] period mentioned a specific profession of herbs mixer and combiner (herbalist), called ''Acaraki''. The book from [[Mataram Sultanate|Mataram]] dated from circa 1700 contains 3,000 entries of jamu herbal recipes, while Javanese classical literature [[Serat Centhini]] (1814) describes some jamu herbal concoction recipes.
</div>
<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
インドの[[Ayurveda/ja|アーユルヴェーダ]]の影響を受けている可能性はあるが、[[:en:List of islands of Indonesia|インドネシア群島]]にはインドにはない固有の植物が数多くあり、[[:en:Wallace Line|ウォレス・ライン]]を越えたオーストラリアにも似た植物がある。ジャムーの慣習は地域によって異なることがあり、特に国内の遠隔地では記録されていないことが多い。主に薬草であるが、[[honey/ja|蜂蜜]]、[[royal jelly/ja|ローヤルゼリー]]、牛乳、''[[ayam kampung/ja|アヤム・カンプン]]''[[chicken eggs/ja|卵]]などの動物から得られるジャムーの材料もある。
Though possibly influenced by Indian [[Ayurveda]] systems, the [[List of islands of Indonesia|Indonesia archipelago]] holds numerous indigenous plants not found in India, including plants similar to those in Australia beyond the [[Wallace Line]]. Jamu practices may vary from region to region, and are often not recorded, especially in remote areas of the country. Although primarily herbal, some Jamu materials are acquired from animals, such as [[honey]], [[royal jelly]], milk, and ''[[Ayam Kampung]]'' [[chicken eggs|eggs]].
Herbalists tend to use extracts from parts of plants, such as the roots or leaves, believing that plants are subject to environmental pressures and therefore develop resistance to threats such as radiation, [[reactive oxygen species]] and microbial attack to survive, providing defensive [[phytochemical]]s of use in herbalism.
Indigenous healers often claim to have learned by observing that sick animals change their food preferences to nibble at bitter herbs they would normally reject. Field biologists have provided corroborating evidence based on observation of diverse species, such as chickens, sheep, [[butterfly|butterflies]], and [[chimpanzee]]s. The habit of changing diet has been shown to be a physical means of purging intestinal parasites. Sick animals tend to forage plants rich in [[secondary metabolites]], such as [[tannins]] and [[alkaloids]].