Created page with "==語源{{Anchor|Etymology}}== 「pepper」という言葉は、古英語の「''pipor''」、ラテン語の「''piper''」、そして{{langx|el|πέπερι}}に由来する。ギリシャ語の語源は、おそらくドラヴィダ語の「''pippali''」（「ロングペッパー」の意）に由来すると考えられる。サンスクリット語の「''pippali''..."
Created page with "コショウは蒸発によって風味と香りを失うため、密閉容器に保存することで辛味をより長く保つことができる。コショウは光にさらされると風味を失うこともあり、これはピペリンがほとんど無味のイソチャビシンに異性化するためである。一度挽いたコショウの香りはすぐに揮発するため、ほとんどの料理の専門家は、こ..."
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In the 16th century, people began using ''pepper'' to also mean the [[New World]] [[chili pepper]] (genus ''[[Capsicum]]''), which is not closely related.
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品種{{Anchor|Varieties}}==
==Varieties==
[[File:4 color mix of peppercorns.jpg|thumb|黒、緑、白、そしてピンク（''[[Schinus terebinthifolia/ja|Schinus terebinthifolia]]''）のペッパーコーンの4色ミックス]]
[[File:4 color mix of peppercorns.jpg|thumb|Black, green, white, and pink (''[[Schinus terebinthifolia]]'') peppercorns]]
Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe [[drupe]] of the pepper plant. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures [[cell wall]]s in the pepper, accelerating [[enzymes]] that cause [[browning (chemical process)|browning]] during drying.
The pepper drupes can also be dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper skin around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer containing [[melanoidin]]. Once dry, the spice is called black peppercorn. After the peppercorns are dried, pepper powder for culinary uses is obtained by crushing the berries, which may also yield an [[essential oil]] by [[extract|extraction]].
White pepper consists solely of the seed of the ripe fruit of the pepper plant, with the thin darker-coloured skin (flesh) of the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by a process known as [[retting]], where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week so the flesh of the peppercorn softens and [[decomposition|decomposes]]; rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Sometimes the outer layer is removed from the seed through other mechanical, chemical, or biological methods.
Ground white pepper is commonly used in [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], and [[Portuguese cuisine]]s. It finds occasional use in other cuisines in salads, [[Béchamel|light-coloured]] sauces, and [[mashed potatoes]] as a substitute for black pepper, because black pepper would visibly stand out. However, white pepper lacks certain compounds present in the outer layer of the drupe, resulting in a different overall flavour.
Green pepper, like black pepper, is made from unripe drupes. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a way that retains the green colour, such as with [[sulfur dioxide]], [[canning]], or [[freeze-drying]]. [[Pickled]] peppercorns, also green, are unripe drupes preserved in [[brine]] or [[vinegar]].
Fresh, unpreserved green pepper drupes are used in some cuisines like [[Thai cuisine]] and [[Tamil cuisine]]. Their flavour has been described as "spicy and fresh", with a "bright aroma." They decay quickly if not dried or preserved, making them unsuitable for international shipping.
Red peppercorns usually consist of ripe peppercorn drupes preserved in brine and vinegar. Ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper.
[[Pink peppercorn]]s are the fruits of the [[Peruvian pepper|Peruvian pepper tree]], ''Schinus molle'', or its relative, the [[Brazilian pepper|Brazilian pepper tree]], ''Schinus terebinthifolius'', plants from a different family ([[Anacardiaceae]]). As they are members of the [[cashew]] family, they may cause [[allergic reactions]], including [[anaphylaxis]], for persons with a [[tree nut allergy]].
The bark of ''[[Drimys winteri]]'' ("canelo" or "winter's bark") is used as a substitute for pepper in cold and temperate regions of [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]], where it is easily found and readily available. In [[New Zealand]], the seeds of [[Kawakawa (tree)|kawakawa]] (''Piper excelsum''), a [[Piperaceae|relative of black pepper]], are sometimes used as pepper; the leaves of ''[[Pseudowintera colorata]]'' ("mountain horopito") are another replacement for pepper. Several plants in the United States are also used as pepper substitutes, such as [[Lepidium campestre|field pepperwort]], [[Lepidium virginicum|least pepperwort]], [[shepherd's purse]], [[horseradish]], and [[field pennycress]].
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Variants of Pepper.jpg|Six variants of peppercorns (two types of white and two types of black, based on region)
Variants of Pepper.jpg|コショウの6種類のバリエーション（地域に基づいた2種類の白と2種類の黒）
Dried Peppercorns.jpg|alt=Black peppercorns and white peppercorns|Black and white peppercorns
Dried Peppercorns.jpg|alt=黒コショウと白コショウ|黒コショウと白コショウ
Dried red Kampot peppercorns.jpg|Dried red [[Kampot peppercorns]]
Dried red Kampot peppercorns.jpg|乾燥赤色[[Kampot peppercorns/ja|カンポットペッパー]]
Pimienta negra (Piper nigrum), 2020-06-12, DD 20-40 FS.jpg|Close-up of a peppercorn
[[File:Black Pepper on Jackfruit Tree - Kerala - IMG 3623.jpg|thumb|150px|パラミツの木（''Artocarpus heterophyllus''）に絡みつく黒コショウのつる]]
[[File:Black Pepper on Jackfruit Tree - Kerala - IMG 3623.jpg|thumb|150px|Black pepper vine climbing on Jackfruit tree (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'')]]
The pepper plant is a [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[woody plant|woody]] [[vine]] growing up to {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, {{convert|5|to|10|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|3|to|6|cm|abbr=on}} across. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes {{convert|4|to|8|cm|abbr=on}} long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening up to {{convert|7|to|15|cm|abbr=on}} as the fruit matures.
Pepper can be grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to flooding, moist, well-drained, and rich in organic matter. The vines do not do well over an altitude of {{convert|900|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} above sea level. The plants are propagated by cuttings about {{convert|40|to|50|cm|abbr=on}} long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf [[mulch]] and [[manure]], and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils, the young plants require watering every other day during the [[dry season]] for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and then typically for seven years. The cuttings are usually [[cultivar]]s, selected both for yield and quality of fruit.
[[File:Black Pepper Flower - Kerala - IMG 3622.jpg|thumb|150px|花をつけた単一の茎。]]
[[File:Black Pepper Flower - Kerala - IMG 3622.jpg|thumb|150px|Single stem with flowers.]]
A single stem bears 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two fruits at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is fully mature, and still hard; if allowed to ripen completely, the fruits lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes.
Black pepper is native either to [[Southeast Asia]] or [[South Asia]]. Within the genus ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]]'', it is most closely related to other Asian species such as ''P. caninum''.
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野生のコショウは[[:en:India|インド]]の[[:en:Western Ghats|西ガーツ山脈]]地域に生育している。19世紀まで、この森林には広大な野生のコショウのつるが繁茂しており、スコットランドの医師[[:en:Francis Buchanan|フランシス・ブキャナン]]（植物学者、地理学者でもある）が著書『''A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar''』（第III巻）に記録している。しかし、[[:en:Deforestation|森林伐採]]の結果、野生のコショウは[[:en:Goa|ゴア]]から[[:en:Kerala|ケララ]]までの限られた森林パッチで生育するようになり、栽培品種の品質と収量が向上するにつれて、野生の供給源は徐々に減少していった。現在までに、野生のコショウへの商業用コショウの接ぎ木は成功していない。
Wild pepper grows in the [[Western Ghats]] region of [[India]]. Into the 19th century, the forests contained expansive wild pepper vines, as recorded by the Scottish physician [[Francis Buchanan]] (also a botanist and geographer) in his book ''A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar'' (Volume III). However, [[deforestation]] resulted in wild pepper growing in more limited forest patches from [[Goa]] to [[Kerala]], with the wild source gradually decreasing as the quality and yield of the cultivated variety improved. No successful grafting of commercial pepper on wild pepper has been achieved to date.
In 2023, world production of black peppercorns was 855,105 [[tonne]]s, led by [[Vietnam]] with 30% of the total, and Brazil, Indonesia, and India as secondary producers (table). Peppercorns are among the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20% of all spice imports.
Black pepper is native to [[South Asia]] and Southeast Asia, and has been known to [[Indian cuisine|Indian cooking]] since at least 2000 BCE. J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern [[Thailand]] and in [[Malaysia]],{{when|date=February 2020}} its most important source was India, particularly the [[Malabar Coast]], in what is now the state of [[Kerala]]. The lost ancient port city of [[Muziris]] of the [[Chera Dynasty]], famous for exporting black pepper and various other spices, is mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade with the [[Roman Empire]], [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Levant]], and [[Yemen]]. Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of [[commodity money]]. The legacy of this trade remains in some Western legal systems that recognize the term "[[peppercorn rent]]" as a token payment for something that is, essentially, a gift.
The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of [[long pepper]], the dried fruit of closely related ''[[Piper longum]]''. The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just ''piper''. In fact, the popularity of long pepper did not entirely decline until the discovery of the New World and of [[chili pepper]]s. Chili peppers—some of which, when dried, are similar in shape and taste to long pepper—were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe. Before the 16th century, pepper was being grown in [[Java]], [[Sunda Islands|Sunda]], [[Sumatra]], [[Madagascar]], Malaysia, and everywhere in Southeast Asia. These areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally. Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean. The Maluku Islands, historically known as the "Spice Islands," are a region in Indonesia known for producing nutmeg, mace, cloves, and pepper, and were a major source of these spices in the world. The presence of these spices in the Maluku Islands sparked European interest to buy them directly in the 16th century.
Black peppercorns were found stuffed in the nostrils of [[Ramesses II]], placed there as part of the [[mummy|mummification]] rituals shortly after his death in 1213 BCE. Little else is known about the use of pepper in [[ancient Egypt]] and how it reached the [[Nile]] from the [[Malabar Coast]] of India.
Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the fourth century BCE, though it was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford.
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[[File:Italy to India Route.svg|thumb|インドからイタリアへのローマ時代の貿易ルート]]
[[File:Italy to India Route.svg|thumb|A Roman-era trade route from India to Italy]]
[[:en:Roman Empire|ローマ帝国]]初期、特に紀元前30年のローマによるエジプト征服後には、アラビア海を横断してチェーラ朝の[[:en:southern India|南インド]]マラバール海岸へ直接航海することはほぼ日常的になっていた。インド洋を横断するこの貿易の詳細は、『[[:en:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|エリュトゥラー海案内記]]』に伝えられている。ギリシャの地理学者[[:en:Strabo|ストラボン]]によると、初期の帝国は年間約120隻の船隊をインドとの往復航海に送り出していた。この船隊は、予測可能な[[:en:Monsoon|モンスーン]]の風を利用するために、アラビア海を横断する時期を調整していた。インドから戻る船は[[:en:Red Sea|紅海]]を上り、そこから貨物は陸路または[[:en:Canal of the Pharaohs|ナイル・紅海運河]]を経由してナイル川へ運ばれ、はしけで[[:en:Alexandria|アレクサンドリア]]へ運ばれ、そこからイタリアやローマへ出荷された。この貿易ルートのおおよその地理的輪郭は、今後1500年間ヨーロッパへのコショウ貿易を支配することになる。
By the time of the early [[Roman Empire]], especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea direct to Chera dynasty [[southern India]]'s Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. According to the Greek geographer [[Strabo]], the early empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual trip to India and back. The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictable [[monsoon]] winds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up the [[Red Sea]], from where the cargo was carried overland or via the [[Canal of the Pharaohs|Nile-Red Sea canal]] to the Nile River, barged to [[Alexandria]], and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate the pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come.
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船がマラバール海岸に直接航海するようになり、[[Malabar pepper/ja|マラバール胡椒]]は長胡椒よりも短い交易路を移動するようになり、その価格に反映された。[[:en:Pliny the Elder|プリニウス]]の『[[:en:Natural History (Pliny)|博物誌]]』には、紀元77年頃のローマでの価格が記されている。「長胡椒は1ポンドあたり15[[:en:denarius|デナリウス]]、白胡椒は7デナリウス、黒胡椒は4デナリウスである」。プリニウスはまた、「インドが毎年ローマ帝国から5000万[[:en:sestertius|セステルティウス]]を吸い上げない年はなく」、さらにコショウについて次のように道徳的な批判を述べている。
With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, [[Malabar pepper|Malabar black pepper]] was now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' tells us the prices in Rome around 77 CE: "Long pepper ... is 15 [[denarius|denarii]] per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains, "There is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of 50 million [[sestertius|sesterces]]", and further moralizes on pepper:
{{Blockquote|It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite?|Pliny, ''Natural History'' 12.14}}
He does not state whether the 50 million was the actual amount of money which found its way to India or the total retail cost of the items in Rome, and, elsewhere, he cites a figure of 100 million sesterces.
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黒胡椒は、高価ではあったものの、ローマ帝国でよく知られ広く普及した調味料であった。[[:en:Apicius|アピキウス]]の『[[:en:De re coquinaria|料理書]]』（3世紀の料理書で、おそらく少なくとも部分的に1世紀の書物に基づいている）には、レシピの大部分にコショウが含まれている。[[:en:Edward Gibbon|エドワード・ギボン]]は、『[[:en:The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|ローマ帝国衰亡史]]』の中で、コショウは「最も高価なローマ料理の好ましい材料」であったと記している。
Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the Roman Empire. [[Apicius]]' ''[[De re coquinaria]]'', a third-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the first century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. [[Edward Gibbon]] wrote, in ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', that pepper was "a favorite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery".
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===中世ヨーロッパ===
===Postclassical Europe===
コショウは非常に貴重であったため、しばしば[[:en:collateral (finance)|担保]]や通貨としてさえ使用された。コショウの味覚（あるいはその金銭的価値の評価）は、ローマ帝国の崩壊を目撃する者たちに受け継がれた。[[:en:Alaric I|アラリック]]（[[:en:Visigoths|西ゴート族]]の王）は、5世紀にローマを包囲した際にローマに要求した身代金の一部として、3,000ポンドのコショウを含めた。ローマの崩壊後、[[:en:spice trade|スパイス貿易]]の中間経路は、まず[[:en:Persian Empire|ペルシャ人]]、次いで[[:en:Arab|アラブ人]]が引き継いだ。イネス・ミラーは、東方へインドまで旅した[[:en:Cosmas Indicopleustes|コスマス・インディコプレウステス]]の記述を引用し、「6世紀にもコショウがインドから輸出されていた」ことの証拠としている。[[:en:Early Middle Ages|中世初期]]の終わりには、スパイス貿易の中心部分は[[:en:Islamic|イスラム]]の支配下にしっかりと置かれた。地中海に入ると、貿易は主にイタリアの勢力、特に[[:en:Republic of Venice|ヴェネツィア共和国]]と[[:en:Republic of Genoa|ジェノヴァ共和国]]によって独占された。これらの[[:en:city-state|都市国家]]の勃興は、大部分がスパイス貿易によって資金提供された。
Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as [[collateral (finance)|collateral]] or even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall. [[Alaric I|Alaric]], king of the [[Visigoths]], included 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom he demanded from Rome when he besieged the city in the fifth century. After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the [[spice trade]], first the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] and then the [[Arab]]s; Innes Miller cites the account of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], who travelled east to India, as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century". By the end of the [[Early Middle Ages]], the central portions of the spice trade were firmly under [[Islamic]] control. Once into the Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolized by Italian powers, especially [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]]. The rise of these [[city-state]]s was funded in large part by the spice trade.
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7世紀の[[:en:Bishop of Sherborne (historic)|シャーボーン司教]][[:en:Saint Aldhelm|聖アルドヘルム]]が作った[[:en:riddle|なぞなぞ]]は、当時のイングランドにおける黒コショウの役割にいくらか光を当てている。
A [[riddle]] authored by [[Saint Aldhelm]], a seventh-century [[Bishop of Sherborne (historic)|Bishop of Sherborne]], sheds some light on black pepper's role in England at that time:
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{{Poem quote|私は外は黒く、しわくちゃの覆いをまとう、
{{Poem quote|I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover,
されど内には燃える髄を宿す。
Yet within I bear a burning marrow.
私は珍味、王の宴、食卓の贅沢を調味し、
I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table,
厨房のソースも柔らかい肉も。
Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen.
だが、私に価値ある品質を見出すことはないだろう、
But you will find in me no quality of any worth,
あなたの腸が私の輝く髄によって揺さぶられるまでは。}}
Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.}}
It is commonly believed that during the [[Middle Ages]], pepper was often used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. No evidence supports this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely; in the Middle Ages, pepper was a [[luxury good|luxury item]], affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available, as well. In addition, people of the time certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable; it is true that [[piperine]], the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small. Salt is a much more effective preservative, and [[salt-cured meat]]s were common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices played a role in improving the taste of long-preserved meats.
Archaeological evidence of pepper consumption in late medieval Northern Europe comes from excavations on the Danish-Norwegian flagship, [[Gribshunden]], which sank in the summer of 1495. In 2021, archaeologists recovered more than 2000 peppercorns from the wreck, along with a variety of other spices and exotic foodstuffs including clove, ginger, saffron, and almond. The ship was carrying King Hans to a political summit at the time of its loss. The spices were likely intended for feasts at the summit, which would have included the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Councils of State.
[[File:Calicut 1572.jpg|thumb|300px|A depiction of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], Kerala, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade]]
中世におけるその途方もない価格と、[[:en:Republic_of_Venice|ヴェネツィア共和国]]が貿易を独占していたことが、[[:en:Portugal|ポルトガル]]人がインドへの海路を求める動機の一つとなった。1498年、[[:en:Vasco da Gama|ヴァスコ・ダ・ガマ]]はアフリカを周航してインドに到達した最初の人物となった（[[:en:Age of Discovery|大航海時代]]を参照）。[[:en:Kozhikode|カリカット]]のアラブ人（スペイン語とイタリア語を話した）に、なぜ来たのか尋ねられた彼の代理人は、「我々は[[:en:Christians|キリスト教徒]]とスパイスを求めている」と答えた。このアフリカ南端経由でのインドへの最初の航海はささやかな成功に過ぎなかったが、ポルトガル人はすぐに大勢で戻り、最終的にアラビア海の貿易のより大きな支配権を獲得した。[[:en:Treaty of Tordesillas|1494年のトルデシリャス条約]]は、黒コショウの原産地である世界の半分をポルトガルに独占的な権利を与えた。
Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages – and the monopoly on the trade held by [[Republic_of_Venice|Venice]] – was one of the inducements that led the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] to seek a sea route to India. In 1498, [[Vasco da Gama]] became the first person to reach India by sailing around Africa (see [[Age of Discovery]]); asked by Arabs in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seek [[Christians]] and spices". Though this first trip to India by way of the southern tip of Africa was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and eventually gained much greater control of trade on the Arabian Sea. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas|1494 Treaty of Tordesillas]] granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated.
However, the Portuguese monopolized the spice trade for 150 years. Portuguese even became the lingua franca of the then known world. The spice trade made Portugal rich. However, in the 17th century, the Portuguese lost most of their valuable Indian Ocean trade to the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and the [[England|English]], who, taking advantage of the Spanish rule over Portugal during the [[Iberian Union]] (1580–1640), occupied by force almost all Portuguese interests in the area. The pepper ports of Malabar began to trade increasingly with the Dutch in the period 1661–1663.7
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[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Marco Polo|マルコ・ポーロ]]の著書『[[:en:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo|東方見聞録]]』の写本から、ヨーロッパ貿易のために収穫されたコショウ]]
[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|Pepper harvested for the European trade, from a manuscript ''Livre des merveilles de [[Marco Polo]]'' (The book of the marvels of Marco Polo)]]
As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade.
It is possible that black pepper was known in [[China]] in the second century BCE, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by [[Emperor Wu of Han China|Emperor Wu]] to what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something called ''jujiang'' or "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of [[Shu (state)|Shu]], an area in what is now the [[Sichuan]] province. The traditional view among historians is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made from [[betel]] leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black.
In the third century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as ''hujiao'' or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a fourth-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper. By the 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's native [[Sichuan pepper]] (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant).
[[Marco Polo]] testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China, when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay ([[Hangzhou]]): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 223 lbs."
During the course of the [[Ming treasure voyages]] in the early 15th century, Admiral [[Zheng He]] and his expeditionary fleets returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity.
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==伝統医学、植物化学物質、および研究{{Anchor|Traditional medicine, phytochemicals, and research}}==
==Traditional medicine, phytochemicals, and research==
[[File:Alice par John Tenniel 21.png|right|thumb|"確かにそのスープにはコショウが多すぎる！" アリスはくしゃみをしながら、できるだけそう呟いた — 『[[:en:Alice in Wonderland|不思議の国のアリス]]』（1865年）。第6章：ブタとコショウ。料理人のコショウひきに注目。]]
[[File:Alice par John Tenniel 21.png|right|thumb|"There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!". Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing — ''[[Alice in Wonderland]]'' (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill.]]
Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a [[traditional medicine]]. Pepper appears in the Buddhist [[Samaññaphala Sutta]], chapter five, as one of the few medicines a monk is allowed to carry. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used. Black pepper (or perhaps long pepper) was believed to cure several illnesses, such as [[constipation]], [[insomnia]], oral [[abscess]]es, [[sunburn]], and [[toothache]]s, among others.
Pepper is known to cause [[sneeze|sneezing]]. Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing. Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question.
One [[tablespoon]] (6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts of [[vitamin K]] (13% of the [[daily value]] or DV), [[iron]] (10% DV), and [[manganese]] (18% DV), with trace amounts of other [[essential nutrients]], [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and [[dietary fibre]].
Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from [[piperine]] derived from both the outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6 and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the [[capsaicin]] found in [[chili pepper]]s. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains [[aroma]]-contributing [[terpene]]s, including [[germacrene]] (11%), [[limonene]] (10%), [[pinene]] (10%), [[alpha-phellandrene]] (9%), and [[beta-caryophyllene]] (7%), which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, as the fermentation and other processing removes the fruit layer (which also contains some of the spicy piperine). Other flavours also commonly develop in this process, some of which are described as off-flavours when in excess: Primarily [[3-methylindole]] (pig manure-like), [[4-methylphenol]] (horse manure), [[3-methylphenol]] (phenolic), and [[butyric acid]] (cheese). The aroma of pepper is attributed to [[rotundone]] (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl)[[azulene]]-1(2H)-one), a [[sesquiterpene]] originally discovered in the tubers of ''[[Cyperus rotundus]]'', which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/l in water and in wine: rotundone is also present in marjoram, oregano, rosemary, basil, thyme, and geranium, as well as in some [[Shiraz wine]]s.
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コショウは蒸発によって風味と香りを失うため、密閉容器に保存することで辛味をより長く保つことができる。コショウは光にさらされると風味を失うこともあり、これはピペリンがほとんど無味の[[chavicine/ja|イソチャビシン]]に[[Isomerisation/ja|異性化]]するためである。一度挽いたコショウの香りはすぐに揮発するため、ほとんどの料理の専門家は、この理由から使用直前にホールペッパーコーンを挽くことを推奨している。手持ちの[[pepper mill/ja|ペッパーミル]]やグラインダーは、ホールペッパーコーンを機械的に挽いたり砕いたりするもので、挽いたコショウを出すペッパーシェーカーの代替品として用いられる。ペッパーミルのようなスパイスミルは14世紀にはヨーロッパの厨房で発見されているが、それ以前からコショウを砕くために使われていた[[mortar and pestle/ja|乳鉢と乳棒]]も、何世紀にもわたって人気のある方法として残っている。
Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve its spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavour when exposed to light, which can [[Isomerisation|transform]] piperine into nearly tasteless [[chavicine|isochavicine]]. Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheld [[pepper mill]]s or grinders, which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this as an alternative to pepper shakers that dispense ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as the 14th century, but the [[mortar and pestle]] used earlier for crushing pepper have remained a popular method for centuries, as well.
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==関連項目==
==See also==
* [[False black pepper/ja|False black pepper]] – ''Embelia ribes'' は、サクラソウ科（''primrose family''）の種である。
* [[False black pepper]] – ''Embelia ribes'' is a species in the family Primulaceae (the ''primrose family'')
野生のコショウはインドの西ガーツ山脈地域に生育している。19世紀まで、この森林には広大な野生のコショウのつるが繁茂しており、スコットランドの医師フランシス・ブキャナン（植物学者、地理学者でもある）が著書『A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar』（第III巻）に記録している。しかし、森林伐採の結果、野生のコショウはゴアからケララまでの限られた森林パッチで生育するようになり、栽培品種の品質と収量が向上するにつれて、野生の供給源は徐々に減少していった。現在までに、野生のコショウへの商業用コショウの接ぎ木は成功していない。
Enhancing the flavour profile of peppercorns (including piperine and essential oils), prior to processing, has been attempted through the postharvest application of ultraviolet-C light (UV-C).
コショウの6種類のバリエーション（地域に基づいた2種類の白と2種類の黒）
黒コショウと白コショウ
乾燥赤色カンポットペッパー
ペッパーコーンのクローズアップ
,_2020-06-12,_DD_20-40_FS.jpg)
Vietnam
Brazil
Indonesia
India
Malaysia
China
Media related to Piper nigrum at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Piper nigrum at Wikispecies
[[wikibooks:Cookbook:Pepper |]] at the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject
