2013年には、1億2800万人から2億3200万人の人々が大麻を使用しており（15歳から65歳の世界人口の2.7%から4.9%）、アサは違法な薬物の中で最も広く使用されている。成人（2018年現在）の使用者数が最も多い国は[[:en:Cannabis in Zambia|ザンビア]]、[[:en:Cannabis in the United States|アメリカ合衆国]]、[[:en:Cannabis in Canada|カナダ]]、[[:en:Cannabis in Nigeria|ナイジェリア]]である。
In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). Cannabis is by far the most widely used illicit substance, with the highest use among adults ({{as of|2018|lc=y}}) in [[Cannabis in Zambia|Zambia]], the [[Cannabis in the United States|United States]], [[Cannabis in Canada|Canada]], and [[Cannabis in Nigeria|Nigeria]].
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====アメリカ合衆国====
====United States====
1973年から1978年にかけて、11の州がマリファナを非犯罪化した。2001年には、[[:en:Cannabis in Nevada|ネバダ州]]がマリファナの所持を軽犯罪に引き下げ、2012年以降は、他のいくつかの州でもマリファナを非犯罪化、あるいは合法化している。
Between 1973 and 1978, eleven states decriminalized marijuana. In 2001, [[Cannabis in Nevada|Nevada]] reduced marijuana possession to a misdemeanor and since 2012, several other states have decriminalized and even legalized marijuana.
In 2018, surveys indicated that almost half of the people in the United States had tried marijuana, 16% had used it in the past year, and 11% had used it in the past month. In 2014, surveys said daily marijuana use amongst US college students had reached its highest level since records began in 1980, rising from 3.5% in 2007 to 5.9% in 2014 and had surpassed daily cigarette use.
In the US, men are over twice as likely to use marijuana as women, and 18{{ndash}}29-year-olds are six times more likely to use as over-65-year-olds. In 2015, a record 44% of the US population has tried marijuana in their lifetime, an increase from 38% in 2013 and 33% in 1985.
Marijuana use in the United States is three times above the global average, but in line with other Western democracies. Forty-four percent of American 12th graders have tried the drug at least once, and the typical age of first-use is 16, similar to the typical age of first-use for alcohol but lower than the first-use age for other illicit drugs.
Acute negative effects may include anxiety and panic, impaired attention and memory, an increased risk of psychotic symptoms, the inability to think clearly, and an increased risk of accidents. Cannabis impairs a person's driving ability, and [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] was the illicit drug most frequently found in the blood of drivers who have been involved in vehicle crashes. Those with THC in their system are from three to seven times more likely to be the cause of the accident than those who had not used either cannabis or alcohol, although its role is not necessarily causal because THC stays in the bloodstream for days to weeks after intoxication.
Some immediate undesired side effects include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills, reddening of the eyes, dizziness, feeling tired and vomiting. Some users may experience an episode of acute [[psychosis]], which usually abates after six hours, but in rare instances, heavy users may find the symptoms continuing for many days.
Legalization has increased the rates at which children are exposed to cannabis, particularly from edibles. While the toxicity and lethality of THC in children is not known, they are at risk for encephalopathy, hypotension, respiratory depression severe enough to require ventilation, somnolence and coma.
A systematic meta analysis showed that cannabis users double the chance of dying from heart disease. Cannabis users had a 29% higher risk of heart attack and a 20% higher risk of stroke than non-users. There is an association between cannabis use and suicide, particularly in younger users.
A 16-month survey of Oregon and Alaska emergency departments found a report of the death of an adult who had been admitted for acute cannabis toxicity.
A recent study in 2025 suggests that individuals diagnosed with cannabis use disorder—characterized by an inability to stop using cannabis despite its negative effects—face a nearly threefold increase in [[mortality rate]]s compared to those without the condition over a five-year period. The research indicates that people with this disorder are ten times more likely to die by suicide than the general population. Additionally, they have a higher risk of death from trauma, drug poisoning, and lung cancer. In a separate study researchers found an increase in [[schizophrenia]] and [[psychosis]] cases in [[Canada]] linked to cannabis use disorder following the drug’s legalization.
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=== 長期 ===
===Long-term===
{{main/ja|:en:Long-term effects of cannabis}}
{{main|Long-term effects of cannabis}}
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[[File:Rational harm assessment of drugs radar plot.svg|thumb|精神医学、化学、薬理学、法医学、疫学、警察および法律サービスの依存症専門家が、20種類の一般的な娯楽用薬物に関して[[:en:Delphi method|デルファイ法]]による分析を行った。アサは依存性で11位、身体的危害で17位、社会的危害で10位にランク付けされた。]]
[[File:Rational harm assessment of drugs radar plot.svg|thumb|Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in [[Delphi method|delphic analysis]] regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. Cannabis was ranked 11th in dependence, 17th in physical harm, and 10th in social harm.]]
A 2015 meta-analysis found that, although a longer period of abstinence was associated with smaller magnitudes of impairment, both retrospective and [[Prospective memory|prospective]] memory were impaired in cannabis users. The authors concluded that some, but not all, of the deficits associated with cannabis use were reversible. A 2012 meta-analysis found that deficits in most domains of cognition persisted beyond the acute period of intoxication, but was not evident in studies where subjects were abstinent for more than 25 days. Few high quality studies have been performed on the long-term effects of cannabis on cognition, and the results were generally inconsistent. Furthermore, [[effect size]]s of significant findings were generally small. One review concluded that, although most cognitive faculties were unimpaired by cannabis use, residual deficits occurred in [[executive function]]s. Impairments in executive functioning are most consistently found in older populations, which may reflect heavier cannabis exposure, or developmental effects associated with adolescent cannabis use. One review found three prospective cohort studies that examined the relationship between self-reported cannabis use and [[intelligence quotient]] (IQ). The study following the largest number of heavy cannabis users reported that IQ declined between ages 7–13 and age 38. Poorer school performance and increased incidence of leaving school early were both associated with cannabis use, although a causal relationship was not established. Cannabis users demonstrated increased activity in task-related brain regions, consistent with reduced processing efficiency.
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[[:en:quality of life|生活の質]]の低下は重度の大麻の使用と関連しているが、その関係は一貫しておらず、タバコや他の物質よりも弱い。しかし、[[:en:cause and effect|原因と結果]]の方向は不明確である。
A reduced [[quality of life]] is associated with heavy cannabis use, although the relationship is inconsistent and weaker than for tobacco and other substances. The direction of [[cause and effect]], however, is unclear.
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大麻の[[:en:long-term effects of cannabis|長期的な影響]]は明確ではない。[[:en:Cannabis and memory|記憶と認知の問題]]、依存症のリスク、若年者における[[schizophrenia/ja|統合失調症]]のリスクに関する懸念がある。
The [[long-term effects of cannabis]] are not clear. There are concerns surrounding [[Cannabis and memory|memory and cognition problems]], risk of addiction, and the risk of [[schizophrenia]] in young people.
Although global abnormalities in [[white matter]] and [[grey matter]] are not consistently associated with cannabis use, reduced [[hippocampus|hippocampal]] volume is consistently found. [[Amygdala]] abnormalities are sometimes reported, although findings are inconsistent.
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大麻の使用は、[[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex/ja|背外側前頭前野]]などのタスク関連領域の動員増加と関連しており、これは処理効率の低下による代償活動を反映していると考えられている。大麻の使用はまた、[[Cannabinoid receptor type 1/ja|CB<sub>1</sub>]]受容体のダウンレギュレーションと関連している。ダウンレギュレーションの程度は累積的な大麻曝露と関連しており、1カ月間の禁断後に元に戻る。慢性的な大麻の使用が、ヒトの脳における[[glutamate/ja|グルタミン酸]]代謝物のレベルを低下させる可能性があるという限られた証拠がある。
Cannabis use is associated with increased recruitment of task-related areas, such as the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]], which is thought to reflect compensatory activity due to reduced processing efficiency. Cannabis use is also associated with downregulation of [[Cannabinoid receptor type 1|CB<sub>1</sub>]] receptors. The magnitude of down regulation is associated with cumulative cannabis exposure, and is reversed after one month of abstinence. There is limited evidence that chronic cannabis use can reduce levels of [[glutamate]] metabolites in the human brain.
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=== 大麻依存 ===
===Cannabis dependence===
{{Main/ja|:en:Cannabis dependence}}
{{Main|Cannabis dependence}}
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[[:en:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV (1994)]]の基準によると、マリファナを試した人の約9%が最終的に依存症になる。2013年のレビューでは、日常的な使用は10～20%の依存率と関連していると推定されている。大麻依存の最も高いリスクは、学業不振の経歴、[[:en:Deviance (sociology)|小児期]]および思春期における逸脱行動、反抗性、親との関係不良、または親が薬物やアルコールの問題を抱えていた経歴がある人に見られる。日常的な使用者の約50%が使用中止時に離脱症状を経験し（すなわち依存症であり）、睡眠の問題、易怒性、不快気分、渇望を特徴とする。大麻の離脱症状はアルコールの離脱症状よりも深刻ではない。
About 9% of those who experiment with marijuana eventually become dependent according to [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV (1994)]] criteria. A 2013 review estimates daily use is associated with a 10–20% rate of dependence. The highest risk of cannabis dependence is found in those with a history of poor academic achievement, [[Deviance (sociology)|deviant behavior]] in childhood and adolescence, rebelliousness, poor parental relationships, or a parental history of drug and alcohol problems. Of daily users, about 50% experience withdrawal upon cessation of use (i.e. are dependent), characterized by sleep problems, irritability, dysphoria, and craving. Cannabis withdrawal is less severe than withdrawal from alcohol.
According to [[DSM-5]] criteria, 9% of those who are exposed to cannabis develop cannabis use disorder, compared to 20% for [[cocaine]], 23% for [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] and 68% for [[nicotine]]. Cannabis use disorder in the DSM-5 involves a combination of DSM-IV criteria for cannabis abuse and dependence, plus the addition of craving, without the criterion related to legal troubles.
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==== 精神科 ====
====Psychiatric====
{{See also/ja|:en:Long-term effects of cannabis#Mental health}}
{{See also|Long-term effects of cannabis#Mental health}}
From a clinical perspective, two significant school of thought exists for psychiatric conditions associated with cannabis (or cannabinoids) use: transient, non-persistent psychotic reactions, and longer-lasting, persistent disorders that resemble schizophrenia. The former is formally known as acute cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms (CAPS).
At an epidemiological level, a [[dose–response relationship]] exists between cannabis use and increased risk of [[psychosis]] and earlier onset of psychosis. Although the epidemiological association is robust, evidence to prove a causal relationship is lacking.
Cannabis may also increase the risk of depression, but insufficient research has been performed to draw a conclusion. Cannabis use is associated with increased risk of anxiety disorders, although causality has not been established.
A review in 2019 found that research was insufficient to determine the safety and efficacy of using cannabis to treat schizophrenia, psychosis, or other [[mental disorder]]s. Another found that cannabis during adolescence was associated with an increased risk of developing depression and suicidal behavior later in life, while finding no effect on anxiety.
Heavy, long-term exposure to marijuana may have physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences. It may be "associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing [[hepatitis C]]), lungs, heart, and vasculature". A 2014 review found that while cannabis use may be less harmful than alcohol use, the recommendation to substitute it for [[alcoholism|problematic drinking]] was premature without further study. Various surveys conducted between 2015 and 2019 found that many users of cannabis substitute it for [[prescription drug]]s (including opioids), alcohol, and tobacco; most of those who used it in place of alcohol or tobacco either reduced or stopped their intake of the latter substances.
[[Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome]] (CHS) is a severe condition seen in some chronic cannabis users where they have repeated bouts of uncontrollable vomiting for 24–48 hours.
CHSが原因で死亡した4件の症例が報告されている。
Four cases of death have been reported as a result of CHS.
A limited number of studies have examined the [[Cannabis-associated respiratory disease|effects of cannabis smoking]] on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with [[respiratory infections]], coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. The available evidence does not support a causal relationship between cannabis use and [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]. Short-term use of cannabis is associated with [[bronchodilation]]. Other side effects of cannabis use include [[cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome]] (CHS), a condition which involves recurrent nausea, cramping abdominal pain, and vomiting.
Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This [[tar (tobacco residue)|tar]] is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke, and over fifty known [[carcinogen]]s have been identified in cannabis smoke, Cannabis smoke is also inhaled more deeply than tobacco smoke. {{as of|2015}}, there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer. Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco. A 2015 review found an association between cannabis use and the development of testicular [[germ cell tumor]]s (TGCTs), particularly non-[[seminoma]] TGCTs. Another 2015 meta-analysis found no association between lifetime cannabis use and risk of head or neck cancer. Combustion products are not present when using a [[Vaporizer (inhalation device)|vaporizer]], consuming THC in pill form, or consuming [[cannabis foods]].
There is concern that cannabis may contribute to cardiovascular disease, but {{as of|2018|lc=y}}, evidence of this relationship was unclear. Research in these events is complicated because cannabis is often used in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and cocaine that are known to have cardiovascular risk factors. Smoking cannabis has also been shown to increase the risk of [[myocardial infarction]] by 4.8 times for the 60 minutes after consumption.
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大麻が、[[thrombosis/ja|血栓の治療]]に使用される処方薬の[[anticoagulant/ja|抗凝血剤]]の特性を妨害するという予備的な証拠がある。2019年現在、[[anti-inflammatory/ja|抗炎症薬]]および可能な[[Analgesic/ja|鎮痛剤]]としての大麻の[[Mechanism of action/ja|作用機序]]は定義されておらず、大麻
There is preliminary evidence that cannabis interferes with the [[anticoagulant]] properties of prescription drugs used for [[thrombosis|treating blood clots]]. {{as of|2019}}, the [[Mechanism of action|mechanisms]] for the [[anti-inflammatory]] and possible [[Analgesic|pain relieving]] effects of cannabis were not defined, and there were no governmental regulatory approvals or clinical practices for use of cannabis as a drug.
を薬物として使用するための政府の規制上の承認や臨床的な慣行はなかった。
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===== 救急救命への搬送 =====
=====Emergency department visits=====
救急救命（ER）への大麻の使用に関連する入院は、2012年から2016年にかけて大幅に増加し、12歳から17歳の青少年が最も高いリスクを持っていた。合法化後のコロラド州のある医療センターでは、ER入院の約2パーセントが大麻使用者として分類された。これらの使用者の症状の4分の1は、部分的に大麻に起因するとされた（合計449,031人の患者のうち2,567人）。他の薬物が関与している場合もあった。これらの大麻による入院のうち、4分の1は[[:en:Long-term effects of cannabis#Mental health|急性精神症状]]のためであり、主に[[suicidal ideation/ja|自殺念慮]]、うつ病、不安であった。さらに3分の1の症例は、[[:en:cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome|カンナビノイド過食症候群]]を含む消化器系の問題であった。
Emergency room (ER) admissions associated with cannabis use rose significantly from 2012 to 2016; adolescents from age 12–17 had the highest risk. At one Colorado medical center following legalization, approximately two percent of ER admissions were classified as cannabis users. The symptoms of one quarter of these users were partially attributed to cannabis (a total of 2567 out of 449,031 patients); other drugs were sometimes involved. Of these cannabis admissions, one quarter were for [[Long-term effects of cannabis#Mental health|acute psychiatric effects]], primarily [[suicidal ideation]], depression, and anxiety. An additional third of the cases were for gastrointestinal issues including [[cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome]].
According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room visits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statistics include visits in which the patient was treated for a condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use. The drug use must be "implicated" in the emergency department visit, but does not need to be the direct cause of the visit. Most of the illicit drug emergency room visits involved multiple drugs. In 129,000 cases, cannabis was the only implicated drug.
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==== 生殖に関する健康 ====
====Reproductive health====
{{excerpt|Cannabis in pregnancy/ja|paragraph=2}}
{{excerpt|Cannabis in pregnancy|paragraph=1}}
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=== 受動的アサ煙 ===
===Secondhand cannabis smoke===
2022年の研究では、ボングを使って大麻を喫煙すると、リビングルームなどの閉鎖空間で[[carcinogen/ja|発癌性物質]]である[[Particulates/ja|微粒子状物質]]のバックグラウンドレベルが大幅に増加することがわかった。15分後、微粒子状物質の平均レベルは[[:en:United States Environmental Protection Agency|アメリカ合衆国環境保護庁]]の有害な空気質基準値の2倍以上であり、140分後には、タバコや[[:en:hookah|水ギセル]]を使ってタバコを喫煙した場合よりも濃度が4倍高かった。これは、ボングからの受動的大麻煙が非喫煙者にとって健康リスクをもたらす可能性があることを示唆している。
A 2022 study found that smoking cannabis using a bong can greatly increase background levels of [[Particulates|fine particulate matter]], a [[carcinogen]], in an enclosed space such as a living room. After 15 minutes, mean levels of particulate matter were more than twice the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] hazardous air quality threshold, and after 140 minutes, the concentrations were four times greater than those generated by smoking tobacco using a cigarette or [[hookah]]. This suggests secondhand cannabis smoke from bongs may present a health risk to non-smokers.
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<span id="Pharmacology"></span>
==Pharmacology==
==薬理学==
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{{Anchor|Pharmacology}}
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===作用機序===
===Mechanism of action===
{{see also/ja|:en:Effects of cannabis#Biochemical mechanisms in the brain}}
{{see also|Effects of cannabis#Biochemical mechanisms in the brain}}
THC is a weak partial agonist at [[CB1 receptor|CB<sub>1</sub> receptor]]s, while CBD is a [[CB1 receptor|CB<sub>1</sub> receptor]] antagonist.
The CB<sub>1</sub> receptor is found primarily in the brain as well as in some peripheral tissues, and the CB<sub>2</sub> receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is also expressed in [[neuroglia]]l cells. THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB<sub>1</sub> receptors, which inhibit a [[secondary messenger system]] ([[adenylate cyclase]]) in a dose-dependent manner.
Via CB<sub>1</sub> receptor activation, THC indirectly increases [[dopamine]] release and produces [[psychotropic]] effects. [[Cannabidiol|CBD]] also acts as an [[allosteric modulator]] of the [[μ-opioid receptor|μ-]] and [[δ-opioid receptor]]s. THC also potentiates the effects of the [[glycine receptor]]s. It is unknown if or how these actions contribute to the effects of cannabis.
The high [[lipophilicity|lipid-solubility]] of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body for long periods of time. Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels of THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (depending on the amount administered and the sensitivity of the assessment method). Investigators have suggested that this is an important factor in marijuana's effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accumulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranes of neurons.
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<span id="Chemistry"></span>
==Chemistry==
==化学==
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===化学組成===
===Chemical composition===
{{See also/ja|:en:Difference between C. indica and C. sativa}}
{{See also|Difference between C. indica and C. sativa}}
The main psychoactive component of cannabis is [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC), which is formed via decarboxylation of [[tetrahydrocannabinolic acid]] (THCA) from the application of heat. Raw leaf is not psychoactive because the [[cannabinoid]]s are in the form of [[carboxylic acids]]. THC is one of the 483 known compounds in the plant, such as [[cannabidiol]] (CBD).
THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, [[THC-COOH]], can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using [[chromatographic]] techniques as part of a drug use testing program or a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense. The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking. Commercial cannabinoid [[immunoassay]]s, often employed as the initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites. Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.
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[[Duquenois–Levine test/ja|デュケノワ＝ルビン検査]]は、現場における[[Presumptive and confirmatory tests/ja|スクリーニング検査]]として一般的に用いられているが、幅広い物質が偽陽性を示すことがあるため、大麻の存在を確定的に確認することはできない。ジョン・ジェイ刑事司法大学の研究者は、亜鉛サプリメントの摂取が尿中のTHCおよび他の薬物の存在を隠す可能性があると報告した。しかし、[[:en:University of Utah School of Medicine|ユタ大学医学部]]の研究者による2013年の研究は、自己投与による亜鉛が尿中薬物検査で偽陰性を生じさせる可能性を否定している。
The [[Duquenois–Levine test]] is commonly used as a [[Presumptive and confirmatory tests|screening test]] in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives. Researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC and other drugs in urine. However, a 2013 study conducted by researchers at the [[University of Utah School of Medicine]] refute the possibility of self-administered zinc producing false-negative urine drug tests.
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==品種および系統==
==Varieties and strains==
[[File:Cannab2 new.png|thumb|right|大麻の種類]]
[[File:Cannab2 new.png|thumb|right|Types of cannabis]]
CBD is a [[5-HT1A receptor|5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor]] agonist, which is under laboratory research to determine if it has an [[anxiolytic]] effect. It is often claimed that sativa strains provide a more stimulating psychoactive high while indica strains are more sedating with a body high. However, this is disputed by researchers.
A 2015 review found that the use of high CBD-to-THC strains of cannabis showed significantly fewer [[positive symptoms]], such as delusions and hallucinations, better [[cognitive function]] and both lower risk for developing psychosis, as well as a later age of onset of the illness, compared to cannabis with low CBD-to-THC ratios.
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===精神活性成分===
===Psychoactive ingredients===
[[:en:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|国際連合薬物犯罪事務所]]（UNODC）によれば、「大麻サンプル中に含まれるTHCの量は、一般的に大麻の効力の指標として用いられている」。大麻製品には主に3つの形態があり、それは花・果実、樹脂（ハシシ）、およびオイル（ハシシオイル）である。UNODCは、大麻には通常5%のTHCが含まれており、樹脂は「最大20%のTHCを含むことがあり」、また「大麻オイルは60%以上のTHCを含む可能性がある」としている。
According to the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] (UNODC), "the amount of THC present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency." The three main forms of cannabis products are the flower/fruit, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that cannabis often contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC content", and that "Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content."
Studies have found that the potency of illicit cannabis has greatly increased since the 1970s, with THC levels rising and CBD levels dropping. It is unclear, however, whether the increase in THC content has caused people to consume more THC or if users adjust based on the potency of the cannabis. It is likely that the higher THC content allows people to ingest less tar. At the same time, CBD levels in seized samples have lowered, in part because of the desire to produce higher THC levels and because more illegal growers cultivate indoors using artificial lights. This helps avoid detection but reduces the CBD production of the plant.
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オーストラリアの[[:en:National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre|国家大麻予防情報センター]]（NCPIC）によれば、雌株の[[infructescence/ja|花穂]]には最も高い濃度のTHCが含まれ、次に葉が続く。茎や種子は「THC含有量がはるかに低い」とされる。国連によれば、葉は花穂の10分の1、茎は花穂の100分の1のTHCしか含まない可能性がある。
Australia's [[National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre]] (NCPIC) states that the buds ([[infructescence]]s) of the female ''Cannabis'' plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels". The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks 100 times less THC.
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[[:en:Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom|イギリスにおける大麻の分類見直し]]に伴い、政府は大麻を[[class C drug/ja|クラスC]]薬物から[[class B drug/ja|クラスB]]薬物へと再分類した。その一因とされたのが高濃度THCを含む大麻の出現である。彼らは、[[Skunk (cannabis strain)/ja|スカンク]]が警察によって押収されるサンプルの70%から80%を占めていると考えている（ただし、スカンクがすべてのハーブ型大麻と誤認されることもある）。[[Extract/ja|抽出物]]である[[hashish/ja|ハシシ]]や[[hash oil/ja|ハシシオイル]]は、一般的に高濃度の大麻花穂よりも多くのTHCを含む。
After revisions to [[Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom|cannabis scheduling]] in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a [[class C drug|class C]] to a [[class B drug]]. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis. They believe [[Skunk (cannabis strain)|skunk]] accounts for between 70% and 80% of samples seized by police (despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis). [[Extract]]s such as [[hashish]] and [[hash oil]] typically contain more THC than high potency cannabis infructescences.
The short-term effects of cannabis can be altered if it has been laced with [[opioid]] drugs such as heroin or [[fentanyl]]. The added drugs are meant to enhance the psychoactive properties, add to its weight, and increase profitability, despite the increased danger of overdose.
Marijuana or marihuana (herbal cannabis) consists of the dried flowers and fruits and subtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant. This is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 20% THC, with reports of up to 33% THC. This is the stock material from which all other preparations are derived. Although herbal cannabis and [[Hemp|industrial hemp]] derive from the same species and contain the psychoactive component (THC), they are distinct strains with unique biochemical compositions and uses. Hemp has lower concentrations of THC and higher concentrations of CBD, which gives lesser psychoactive effects.
Kief is a powder, rich in [[trichome]]s, which can be sifted from the leaves, flowers and fruits of [[Cannabis sativa|cannabis plants]] and either [[One hitter (smoking)|consumed in powder form]] or compressed to produce cakes of [[hashish]]. The word "kif" derives from [[colloquial Arabic]] {{lang|ar|كيف}} ''{{transliteration|ar|2=kēf<span style="margin:1.5px">/</span>kīf}}'', meaning ''pleasure''.
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===ハシシ===
===Hashish===
{{Main/ja|Hashish/ja}}
{{Main|Hashish}}
[[File:Legal hashish shop in Kathmandu, Nepal in 1973.jpg|alt=Legal hashish shop in Kathmandu, Nepal in 1973|thumb|upright=1.1|1973年の[[:en:Kathmandu|カトマンズ]]（[[:en:Nepal|ネパール]]）における合法ハシシ店]]
[[File:Legal hashish shop in Kathmandu, Nepal in 1973.jpg|alt=Legal hashish shop in Kathmandu, Nepal in 1973|thumb|upright=1.1|Legal hashish shop in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]] in 1973]]
Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentrated [[resin]] cake or ball produced from pressed kief, the detached trichomes and fine material that falls off cannabis fruits, flowers and leaves, or from scraping the resin from the surface of the plants and rolling it into balls. It varies in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity and variety of cultivar it was obtained from. It can be consumed orally or smoked, and is also vaporized, or 'vaped'.
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===チンキ===
===Tincture===
{{main/ja|Tincture of cannabis/ja}}
{{main|Tincture of cannabis}}
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[[Extraction (chemistry)/ja|抽出]]されたカンナビノイドは、高[[alcoholic proof/ja|度数]]の[[herbalism/ja#Routes of administration|スピリッツ]]（通常は[[rectified spirit/ja|グレインアルコール]]）を用いて[[tincture/ja|チンキ]]を作ることで得られ、「グリーンドラゴン」とも呼ばれる。[[Wikipedia:Nabiximols|Nabiximols]]はチンキ製造を行う製薬会社の商品名である。
Cannabinoids can be [[Extraction (chemistry)|extracted]] from cannabis plant matter using high-[[alcoholic proof|proof]] [[herbalism#Routes of administration|spirits]] (often [[rectified spirit|grain alcohol]]) to create a [[tincture]], often referred to as "green dragon". [[Nabiximols]] is a branded product name from a tincture manufacturing pharmaceutical company.
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===Hash oil===
{{Main|Hash oil}}
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===ハシシオイル===
Hash oil is a [[resin]]ous matrix of [[cannabinoid]]s obtained from the cannabis plant by [[solvent extraction]], formed into a hardened or viscous mass. Hash oil can be the most potent of the main cannabis products because of its high level of psychoactive compound per its volume, which can vary depending on the plant's mix of essential oils and psychoactive compounds. [[Butane]] and [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] [[carbon dioxide]] hash oil have become popular in recent years.
There are many varieties of cannabis infusions owing to the variety of non-volatile solvents used. The plant material is mixed with the solvent and then pressed and filtered to express the oils of the plant into the solvent. Examples of solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairy butter, cooking oil, [[glycerine]], and skin moisturizers. Depending on the solvent, these may be used in [[cannabis foods]] or applied topically.
{{lang|es|Marihuana prensada}} ('pressed marijuana') is a cannabis-derived product widespread among the lower classes of South America, especially from the 90s. Locally it is known as "{{lang|es|paraguayo}}" or "{{lang|es|paragua}}", since its main producer is [[Paraguay]]. Marijuana is dried and mixed with [[Binder (material)|binding agents]] that make it toxic and highly harmful to health. It is cut into the shape of bricks (''ladrillos'') and sold for a low price in [[Argentina]], Brazil, Chile, [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]], and even the United States.
{{main|History of cannabis|Timeline of cannabis law|Religion and drugs}}
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==歴史==
===Ancient history===
{{main/ja|:en:History of cannabis|Timeline of cannabis law|:en:Religion and drugs}}
[[File:Jirzankal Cemetery map (Cannabis site).png|thumb|upright=1.3|Present-day map of the Jirzankal Cemetery, site of the earliest evidence of cannabis smoking]]
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===古代の歴史===
Cannabis is [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to Central or South Asia and its uses for fabric and rope dates back to the [[Neolithic age]] in China and Japan. It is unclear when cannabis first became known for its psychoactive properties. The oldest archeological evidence for the burning of cannabis was found in Romanian [[kurgan]]s dated 3,500 BC, and scholars suggest that the drug was first used in ritual ceremonies by [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Indo-European]] tribes living in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]] during the [[Chalcolithic]] period, a custom they eventually spread throughout Western Eurasia during the [[Indo-European migrations]]. Some research suggests that the ancient [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] drug [[soma (drink)|soma]], mentioned in the [[Veda]]s, sometimes contained cannabis. This is based on the discovery of a basin containing cannabis in a shrine of the [[second millennium BC]] in Turkmenistan.
Cannabis was known to the [[History of the Assyrian people|ancient Assyrians]], who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Iranians. Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it ''qunubu'' (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word ''cannabis''. The Iranians also introduced cannabis to the Scythians, [[Thracians]] and [[Dacia]]ns, whose shamans (the ''[[kapnobatai]]''{{snd}}"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis infructescences to induce [[trance]]. The plant was used in China before 2800 BC, and found therapeutic use in India by 1000 BC, where it was used [[cannabis edible|in food and drink]], including ''[[bhang]]''.
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大麻は[[:en:History of the Assyrian people|古代アッシリア人]]にも知られており、彼らはイラン人を通じてその向精神作用を知った。一部の宗教儀式で使用され、''qunubu''（「煙を生み出す手段」の意）と呼ばれ、現代の「cannabis（カンナビス）」という語の語源である可能性がある。イラン人はまた、大麻を[[:en:Scythians|スキタイ人]]、[[:en:Thracians|トラキア人]]、[[:en:Dacians|ダキア人]]に伝えた。彼らのシャーマン（''[[Wikipedia:kapnobatai|kapnobatai]]''{{snd}}「煙／雲の上を歩く者たち」）は、大麻の果実部を燃やして[[:en:trance|トランス状態]]を引き起こした。中国では紀元前2800年以前に使用され、インドでは紀元前1000年までに治療目的で使用されており、[[cannabis edible/ja|食品や飲料]]にも用いられた。''[[bhang/ja|バングー]]''もその一例である。
[[File:Cannabissativadior.jpg|thumb|upright|''Cannabis sativa'' from [[Vienna Dioscurides]], {{circa}} 512 CE]]
Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and has been used by religions around the world. It has been used as a drug for both [[Recreational marijuana|recreational]] and [[Entheogenic use of cannabis|entheogenic]] purposes and in various [[traditional medicine]]s for centuries. The earliest evidence of cannabis smoking has been found in the 2,500-year-old tombs of Jirzankal Cemetery in the [[Pamir Mountains]] in Western China, where cannabis residue were found in burners with charred pebbles possibly used during funeral rituals. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at [[Pazyryk burials|Pazyryk]] suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. It was used by Muslims in various [[Sufi]] orders as early as the [[Mamluk]] period, for example by the [[Qalandariyya|Qalandars]]. Smoking pipes uncovered in Ethiopia and carbon-dated to around {{circa}} AD 1320 were found to have traces of cannabis.
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大麻は古代より儀式的使用の歴史を有し、世界中の宗教で使用されてきた。[[:en:Recreational marijuana|娯楽目的]]や[[:en:Entheogenic use of cannabis|神秘体験目的]]の薬物として、また様々な[[traditional medicine/ja|伝統医学]]で何世紀にもわたり使用されてきた。大麻の喫煙に関する最古の証拠は、中国西部の[[:en:Pamir Mountains|パミール山脈]]にあるジルザンカル墓地（約2500年前）で発見されており、火葬儀式に使用されたと考えられる焦げた小石入りの香炉から大麻の痕跡が見つかっている。考古学者が[[:en:Pazyryk burials|パジリク遺跡]]で発見した麻の種子は、紀元前5〜2世紀にかけてスキタイ人による儀式的実践（例：食用）が存在したことを示し、[[:en:Herodotus|ヘロドトス]]による歴史的記述を裏付けている。大麻は[[:en:Mamluk|マムルーク朝]]期には[[:en:Sufi|スーフィー]]諸派、例えば[[:en:Qalandariyya|カランダル派]]などによってイスラム教徒にも用いられた。エチオピアで発見され、炭素年代測定で約1320年頃とされる喫煙パイプからも大麻の痕跡が検出されている。
===Modern history===
Cannabis was introduced to the [[New World]] by the Spaniards in 1530–1545. Following an 1836–1840 travel in North Africa and the Middle East, French physician [[Jacques-Joseph Moreau]] wrote on the psychological effects of cannabis use; he founded the Paris' [[Club des Hashischins]] in 1844. In 1842, Irish physician [[William Brooke O'Shaughnessy]], who had studied the drug while working as a medical officer in Bengal with the [[East India Company]], brought a quantity of cannabis with him on his return to [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], provoking renewed interest in the West. Examples of classic literature of the period featuring cannabis include ''[[Les paradis artificiels]]'' (1860) by [[Charles Baudelaire]] and ''[[The Hasheesh Eater]]'' (1857) by [[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]].
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===近代の歴史===
[[File:Killerdrug.jpg|thumb|Anti-cannabis propaganda from 1935]]
大麻は1530年から1545年の間に[[:en:New World|新世界]]へ[[:en:Spaniards|スペイン人]]によって導入された。1836年から1840年にかけて北アフリカおよび中東を旅行したフランスの医師[[:en:Jacques-Joseph Moreau|ジャック＝ジョセフ・モロー]]は、大麻の心理作用について記述し、1844年にはパリに[[:en:Club des Hashischins|ハシシンのクラブ]]を設立した。1842年、[[:en:East India Company|東インド会社]]の医療官としてベンガルで勤務中に大麻を研究したアイルランド人医師[[:en:William Brooke O'Shaughnessy|ウィリアム・ブルック・オショーネシー]]は、帰国の際に大麻を持ち帰り、西洋での関心を再燃させた。この時代の大麻に言及した古典文学としては、[[:en:Charles Baudelaire|ボードレール]]の『''[[Wikipedia:Les paradis artificiels|Les paradis artificiels]]''』（1860年）や、[[:en:Fitz Hugh Ludlow|フィッツ・ヒュー・ラドロー]]の『''[[Wikipedia:The Hasheesh Eater|The Hasheesh Eater]]''』（1857年）がある。
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[[File:Killerdrug.jpg|thumb|1935年の反大麻プロパガンダ]]
Cannabis was criminalized in some countries beginning in the 14th century and was illegal in most countries by the middle of the 20th century. The colonial government of Mauritius banned cannabis in 1840 over concerns on its effect on Indian indentured workers; the same occurred in Singapore in 1870. In the United States, the first restrictions on sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in the [[District of Columbia]]). Canada criminalized cannabis in ''The Opium and Narcotic Drug Act, 1923'', before any reports of the use of the drug in Canada, but eventually legalized its consumption for recreational and medicinal purposes in 2018.
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大麻は14世紀から一部の国で違法化され始め、20世紀半ばまでにはほとんどの国で違法となった。モーリシャスの植民地政府は1840年に、インド人契約労働者への影響を懸念して大麻を禁止した。同様の措置は1870年のシンガポールでも取られた。アメリカ合衆国では1906年に[[:en:District of Columbia|コロンビア特別区]]で初めて大麻販売が制限された。カナダでは、1923年の『The Opium and Narcotic Drug Act』により、国内での使用報告がないにもかかわらず大麻が刑事罰の対象となったが、2018年には娯楽・医療目的での使用が合法化された。
In 1925, a compromise was made at an international conference in [[The Hague]] about the [[International Opium Convention]] that banned exportation of "Indian hemp" to countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes". It also required parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin". In the United States in 1937, the [[Marihuana Tax Act of 1937|Marihuana Tax Act]] was passed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addition to cannabis.
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1925年、[[:en:The Hague|ハーグ]]で開催された[[:en:International Opium Convention|国際アヘン条約]]に関する国際会議において、「インド大麻」の輸出を禁止する妥協案が成立し、それを禁止している国への輸出を禁じた。また、輸入国には、輸入許可証の発行と、その輸入が「専ら医療または科学目的」であることを明記するよう求めた。さらに、「インド大麻とその樹脂の国際的な不正取引を防止するための効果的な管理」を行う義務も定められた。アメリカ合衆国では1937年に[[:en:Marihuana Tax Act of 1937|マリファナ税法]]が成立し、大麻のみならず産業用ヘンプの生産も禁止された。
In 1972, the Dutch government divided drugs into more- and less-dangerous categories, with cannabis being in the lesser category. Accordingly, possession of {{convert|30|g}} or less was made a misdemeanor. Cannabis has been available for recreational use in [[Coffeeshop (Netherlands)|coffee shops]] since 1976. Cannabis products are only sold openly in certain local "coffeeshops" and possession of up to {{convert|5|g}} for personal use is decriminalized, however: the police may still confiscate it, which often happens in car checks near the border. Other types of sales and transportation are not permitted, although the general approach toward cannabis was lenient even before official [[decriminalization]].
In Uruguay, President [[Jose Mujica]] signed legislation to [[Cannabis in Uruguay|legalize recreational cannabis]] in December 2013, making Uruguay the first country in the modern era to legalize cannabis. In August 2014, Uruguay legalized growing up to six plants at home, as well as the formation of growing clubs ([[Cannabis social club]]), and a state-controlled [[marijuana dispensary]] regime.
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ウルグアイでは、2013年12月に[[:en:Jose Mujica|ホセ・ムヒカ]]大統領が[[:en:Cannabis in Uruguay|娯楽用大麻合法化]]法に署名し、近代において大麻を合法化した最初の国となった。2014年8月には、家庭での6株までの栽培と[[:en:Cannabis social club|栽培クラブ]]の設立、国家管理による[[:en:marijuana dispensary|大麻薬局]]制度が合法化された。
{{as of|2018|October|17}}, when recreational use of cannabis was legalized in Canada, [[dietary supplement]]s for human use and [[Holistic veterinary medicine|veterinary health products]] containing not more than 10 parts per million of THC extract were approved for marketing; [[Nabiximols]] (as Sativex) is used as a prescription drug in Canada.
The United Nations' ''[[World Drug Report]]'' stated that cannabis "was the world's most widely produced, trafficked, and consumed drug in the world in 2010", and estimated between 128 million and 238 million users globally in 2015.
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国際連合の''[[Wikipedia:World Drug Report|World Drug Report]]''によれば、大麻は「2010年に世界で最も広く生産され、取引され、消費された薬物」であり、2015年時点で世界における使用者数は1億2800万人から2億3800万人と推定された。
[[File:Process of making bhang in Punjab, India.jpg|thumb|Process of making [[bhang]] in a village in [[Punjab, India]]. On the Indian festival of colors, [[Holi]], it is a customary addition to some intoxicating drinks.]]
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===文化===
Cannabis has been one of the most used [[psychoactive drug]]s in the world since the late 20th century, following only [[tobacco]] and [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] in popularity. According to Vera Rubin, the use of cannabis has been encompassed by two major cultural complexes over time: a continuous, traditional [[Folk culture|folk]] stream, and a more circumscribed, contemporary configuration. The former involves both sacred and secular use, and is usually based on small-scale cultivation: the use of the plant for [[Rope|cordage]], clothing, medicine, food, and a "general use as an [[euphoriant]] and symbol of fellowship." The second stream of expansion of cannabis use encompasses "the use of hemp for commercial manufacturers utilizing large-scale cultivation primarily as a fiber for mercantile purposes"; but it is also linked to the search for [[psychedelic experience]]s (which can be traced back to the formation of the Parisian [[Club des Hashischins]]).
[[File:Process of making bhang in Punjab, India.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Punjab, India|パンジャーブ州]]の村での[[bhang/ja|バングー]]製造過程。インドの色の祭り[[:en:Holi|ホーリー]]では、一部の酩酊飲料に慣習的に加えられる。]]
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大麻は20世紀後半以降、[[tobacco/ja|タバコ]]および[[alcohol (drug)/ja|アルコール]]に次いで世界で最も使用されている[[psychoactive drug/ja|向n:精神薬]]の一つとなっている。ヴェラ・ルービンによれば、大麻の使用は二つの主要な文化的複合体に包括されてきた。一つは継続的で伝統的な[[:eFolk culture|民俗]]文化の流れであり、もう一つはより限定された現代的構成である。前者は聖なる使用と世俗的な使用の両方を含み、通常は小規模な栽培に基づいている。すなわち、[[:en:Rope|紐]]、衣服、医薬、食料としての植物利用、そして「[[euphoriant/ja|陶酔剤]]および交友の象徴」としての一般的な使用である。後者の大麻使用拡大の流れは、「商業的製造業者による[[hemp/ja|麻]]の大規模栽培と繊維としての商取引目的での利用」に関係しており、また[[:en:Club des Hashischins|パリのハシシンのクラブ]]創設に遡るような[[:en:psychedelic experience|幻覚体験]]の追求にも関連している。
===Legality===
{{Main|Legality of cannabis}}
===合法性===
{{See also|Prohibition of drugs|Drug liberalization}}
{{Main/ja|:en:Legality of cannabis}}
[[File:Map-of-world-cannabis-laws.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Map of world cannabis laws|
{{See also/ja|:en:Prohibition of drugs|:en:Drug liberalization}}
'''Legal status of cannabis possession for non-medical use'''
Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted [[prohibition (drugs)|laws]] against the cultivation, possession or transfer of cannabis. These laws have had an adverse effect on cannabis cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis so that it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the [[black market]].
In some areas where cannabis use had been historically tolerated, new restrictions were instituted, such as the closing of cannabis coffee shops near the borders of the Netherlands, and closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands. In [[Copenhagen]], Denmark in 2014, mayor [[Frank Jensen]] discussed possibilities for the city to legalize cannabis production and commerce.
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2012年12月、アメリカ合衆国[[:en:Washington (state)|ワシントン州]]は、州法（[[:en:Washington Initiative 502|Washington Initiative 502]]）により大麻を公式に合法化した初の州となった（[[:en:Cannabis in the United States|連邦法]]では依然として違法である）。[[:en:Colorado|コロラド州]]もこれに続き（[[Wikipedia:Colorado Amendment 64|Colorado Amendment 64]]）、2013年1月1日には、購入や販売はできないが、民間での喫煙を目的とした初の[[:en:Cannabis Social Club|大麻クラブ]]が認可された。2013年5月には、カリフォルニア州最高裁判所が、医療目的での大麻使用を認める州法があるにもかかわらず、地方自治体が医療用大麻薬局を禁止することができるとの判断を下した。カリフォルニア州内では近年、180以上の都市で禁止条例が制定されている。[[File:President Biden Discusses Taking the Next Step to Reclassify Marijuana (tDWWZ1zGNwg).webm|thumb|right|[[:en:President Biden|バイデン大統領]]による大麻の再分類に関する議論]]
Some jurisdictions use free voluntary or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. Political parties, non-profit organizations, and causes based on the legalization of medical cannabis or legalizing the plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged in such countries as China and Thailand.
2024年4月30日、アメリカ合衆国[[:en:US Department of Justice|司法省]]は、大麻をスケジュールIから[[:en:Controlled Substances Act#Schedule III|スケジュールIIIの規制物質]]へ再分類する方針を発表した。
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In December 2012, the U.S. state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] became the first state to officially legalize cannabis in a state law ([[Washington Initiative 502]]) (but still illegal by [[Cannabis in the United States|federal law]]), with the state of [[Colorado]] following close behind ([[Colorado Amendment 64]]). On 1 January 2013, the first cannabis "[[Cannabis Social Club|club]]" for private marijuana smoking (no buying or selling, however) was allowed for the first time in Colorado. The California Supreme Court decided in May 2013 that local governments can ban medical cannabis dispensaries despite a state law in California that permits the use of cannabis for medical purposes. At least 180 cities across California have enacted bans in recent years. [[File:President Biden Discusses Taking the Next Step to Reclassify Marijuana (tDWWZ1zGNwg).webm|thumb|right|[[President Biden]] discussess rescheduling of cannabis.]]
On 30 April 2024, the United States [[US Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] announced it would move to reclassify cannabis from a Schedule I to a [[Controlled Substances Act#Schedule III|Schedule III controlled substance]].
In December 2013, [[Uruguay]] became the first country to legalize growing, sale and use of cannabis. After a long delay in implementing the retail component of the law, in 2017 sixteen pharmacies were authorized to sell cannabis commercially. On 19 June 2018, the Canadian Senate passed a bill and the Prime Minister announced the effective legalization date as 17 October 2018. Canada is the second country to legalize the drug.
In November 2015, [[Uttarakhand]] became the first state of India to legalize the cultivation of hemp for industrial purposes. Usage within the Hindu and Buddhist cultures of the [[Indian subcontinent]] is common, with many street vendors in India openly selling products infused with cannabis, and traditional medical practitioners in Sri Lanka selling products infused with cannabis for recreational purposes and well as for religious celebrations. Indian laws criminalizing cannabis date back to the [[Colonial India|colonial period]]. India and Sri Lanka have allowed cannabis to be taken in the context of traditional culture for recreational/celebratory purposes and also for medicinal purposes.
On 17 October 2015, Australian health minister [[Sussan Ley]] presented a new law that will allow the [[Agriculture|cultivation]] of cannabis for scientific research and medical trials on patients.
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2018年10月17日、[[:en:Cannabis in Canada|カナダは大麻を合法化]]し、ウルグアイに次いで世界で2番目、[[:en:G7|G7]]諸国としては初めてとなった。この合法化には、[[:en:Alcoholic drinks in Canada|カナダのアルコール]]規制に類似した年齢制限、家庭栽培の制限、流通・消費場所・販売時間の制限が伴う。使用に関する法律は州ごとに異なり、年齢制限、小売体制、家庭栽培の可否などが異なる。[[:en:List of licensed producers of medical marijuana in Canada|カナダの公認医療大麻生産者制度]]は、安全で信頼性の高い大麻生産における世界的な基準となることを目指しており、多くの関係者は多様な品種の実験機会を提供する「クラフト大麻産業」の成長を期待している。
On 17 October 2018, [[Cannabis in Canada|Canada legalized cannabis]] for recreational adult use making it the second country in the world to do so after Uruguay and the first G7 nation. This legalization comes with regulation similar to that of [[Alcoholic drinks in Canada|alcohol in Canada]], age restrictions, limiting home production, distribution, consumption areas and sale times. Laws around use vary from province to province including age limits, retail structure, and growing at home. The [[List of licensed producers of medical marijuana in Canada|Canadian Licensed Producer]] system aims to become the Gold Standard in the world for safe and secure cannabis production, including provisions for a robust craft cannabis industry where many expect opportunities for experimenting with different strains.
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大麻が刑事問題ではなく健康問題とみなされるようになったことから、[[:en:Czech Republic|チェコ]]、[[:en:Colombia|コロンビア]]、[[:en:Ecuador|エクアドル]]、[[:en:Cannabis in South Africa|南アフリカ]]、カナダなどで大麻が合法化または[[:en:Decriminalization|非犯罪化]]されている。メキシコでは2017年中頃に医療用大麻が合法化され、2021年6月には娯楽目的でも合法化された。
As the drug has increasingly been seen as a health issue instead of criminal behavior, cannabis has also been legalized or [[Decriminalization|decriminalized]] in: [[Czech Republic]], [[Colombia]],[[Ecuador]], [[Cannabis in South Africa|South Africa]] and Canada. Medical marijuana was legalized in Mexico in mid-2017 and legalized for recreational use in June 2021.
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ドイツは2024年4月に娯楽目的での大麻を合法化した。
Germany legalized cannabis for recreational use in April 2024.
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==== 国別の法的地位 ====
==== Legal status by country ====
2022年の時点で、[[:en:Cannabis in Uruguay|ウルグアイ]]および[[:en:Cannabis in Canada|カナダ]]は、娯楽用大麻の栽培、消費、および物々交換を全国的に完全に合法化した唯一の国である。[[:en:Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction|アメリカ合衆国]]では、24の州、3つの準州、およびコロンビア特別区が娯楽用大麻の使用を合法化しているが、連邦レベルでは依然として違法である。商業的販売に関しては、州ごとに法律が異なる。[[:en:Georgia (country)|ジョージア]]および南アフリカにおける裁判所の判決により、大麻の消費は合法化されたが、販売は合法化されていない。多くの国、特にスペインおよび[[:en:Netherlands|オランダ]]では、大麻の販売が許可された施設で容認されており、限定的な取り締まり政策が採用されている。一般的な誤解に反して、オランダでは大麻は合法ではなく、1970年代以降非犯罪化されているにすぎない。2021年、[[:en:Malta|マルタ]]は娯楽用大麻の使用を合法化した最初の[[:en:European Union|欧州連合]]加盟国となった。[[:en:Estonia|エストニア]]では、THC含有量が0.2%未満の大麻製品のみ販売が合法であるが、より多くのカンナビジオールを含む製品も存在する。[[:en:Lebanon|レバノン]]は最近、医療用としての大麻栽培を合法化した最初のアラブ国家となった。
As of 2022, [[Cannabis in Uruguay|Uruguay]] and [[Cannabis in Canada|Canada]] are the only countries that have fully legalized the cultivation, consumption and bartering of recreational cannabis nationwide. [[Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction|In the United States]], 24 states, 3 territories, and the District of Columbia have legalized the recreational use of cannabis – though the drug remains illegal at the federal level. Laws vary from state to state when it comes to the commercial sale. Court rulings in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and South Africa have led to the legalization of cannabis consumption, but not legal sales. A policy of limited enforcement has also been adopted in many countries, in particular Spain and the [[Netherlands]] where the sale of cannabis is tolerated at licensed establishments. Contrary to popular belief, cannabis is not legal in the Netherlands, but it has been decriminalized since the 1970s. In 2021, [[Malta]] was the first [[European Union]] member to legalize the use of cannabis for recreational purposes. In [[Estonia]], it is only legal to sell cannabis products with a THC content of less than 0.2%, although products may contain more cannabidiol. [[Lebanon]] has recently become the first Arab country to legalize the plantation of cannabis for medical use.
Penalties for illegal recreational use ranges from confiscation or small fines to jail time and even death. In some countries, citizens can be punished if they have used the drug in another country, including Singapore and South Korea.
{{lang|es|Sinsemilla}} (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless (i.e. [[Parthenocarpy|parthenocarpic]]) [[infructescence]]s of female [[Cannabis sativa|cannabis plants]]. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination, thus inducing the development of [[Parthenocarpy|parthenocarpic]] fruits gathered in dense [[infructescence]]s. Advanced cultivation techniques such as [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Hydroponic cultivation|hydroponics]], [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Feminized seeds|cloning]], [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Light|high-intensity artificial lighting]], and [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#SOG|the sea of green method]] are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky.
{{anchor|Skunk}}"Skunk" refers to several named strains of potent cannabis, grown through selective breeding and sometimes [[hydroponics]]. It is a cross-breed of ''Cannabis sativa'' and ''C. indica'' (although other strains of this mix exist in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.
The average levels of THC in cannabis sold in the United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000. This is disputed for various reasons, and there is little consensus as to whether this is a fact or an artifact of poor testing methodologies. According to Daniel Forbes writing for slate.com, the relative strength of modern strains are likely skewed because undue weight is given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent, samples. Some suggest that results are skewed by older testing methods that included low-THC-content plant material such as leaves in the samples, which are excluded in contemporary tests. Others believe that modern strains actually are significantly more potent than older ones.
The main producing countries of cannabis are Afghanistan, Canada, China, Colombia, India, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Paraguay, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The price or street value of cannabis varies widely depending on geographic area and potency. Prices and overall markets have also varied considerably over time.
* In 1997, cannabis was estimated to be overall the number four value crop in the US, and number one or two in many states, including California, New York, and Florida. This estimate is based on a value to growers of ~60% of retail value, or {{convert|3000|$/lb|$/kg}}.
* In 2006, cannabis was estimated to have been a $36 billion market. This estimate has been challenged as exaggerated. The UN World Drug Report (2008) estimated that 2006 street prices in the US and Canada ranged from about US$8.8 to $25 per gram (approximately $250 to $700 per ounce), depending on quality. Typical U.S. retail prices were $10–15 per gram (approximately $280–420 per [[ounce]]).
After some U.S. states legalized cannabis, street prices began to drop. In Colorado, the price of smokable buds (infructescences) dropped 40 percent between 2014 and 2019, from $200 per ounce to $120 per ounce ($7 per gram to $4.19 per gram).
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[[:en:European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction|欧州麻薬・薬物依存監視センター]]によれば、2008年におけるヨーロッパでの大麻の典型的な小売価格はグラムあたり2ユーロから20ユーロであり、大多数の欧州諸国では4〜10ユーロの範囲であった。
The [[European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction]] reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varied from €2 to €20 per gram in 2008, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range €4–10.
The gateway hypothesis states that cannabis use increases the probability of trying "harder" drugs. The hypothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by some as the primary rationale for the United States prohibition on cannabis use.
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いくつかの研究では、ゲートウェイ仮説を裏付ける証拠はないものの、若年層の大麻使用者は介入プログラムのリスク群として考慮されるべきであるとされている。その他の研究結果では、[[hard and soft drugs/ja|ハードドラッグ]]の使用者は[[poly drug use/ja|多剤併用者]]である傾向があり、介入は単一のハードドラッグ使用ではなく、複数の薬物使用に対応すべきであることが示されている。2009年から2010年のスコットランド犯罪・司法調査では、多剤併用者のほぼ3分の2が大麻を使用していた。
Some studies state that while there is no proof for the gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs. Other findings indicate that [[hard and soft drugs|hard drug]] users are likely to be [[poly drug use|poly-drug users]], and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug. Almost two-thirds of the poly drug users in the 2009–2010 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey used cannabis.
The gateway effect may appear due to social factors involved in using any illegal drug. Because of the illegal status of cannabis, its consumers are likely to find themselves in situations allowing them to acquaint with individuals using or selling other illegal drugs. Studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may additionally be regarded as gateway drugs; however, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs. In turn, alcohol and tobacco are typically easier to obtain at an earlier age than is cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those individuals, since they are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.
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ゲートウェイ仮説に関連する代替理論として、共通依存傾向（common liability to addiction, CLA）理論がある。この理論では、何らかの理由で複数の娯楽用薬物を試す傾向にある個人が存在するとされており、「ゲートウェイ」とされる薬物は、単にハードドラッグよりも早い年齢で入手可能であるものにすぎない。研究者らは包括的なレビューにおいて、ゲートウェイ「理論」における出来事の連鎖を因果的なものとして提示することは、研究および介入の両方を妨げるため危険であると指摘している。
A related alternative to the gateway hypothesis is the common liability to addiction (CLA) theory. It states that some individuals are, for various reasons, willing to try multiple recreational substances. The "gateway" drugs are merely those that are (usually) available at an earlier age than the harder drugs. Researchers have noted in an extensive review that it is dangerous to present the sequence of events described in gateway "theory" in causative terms as this hinders both research and intervention.
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2020年、[[:en:National Institute on Drug Abuse|アメリカ国立薬物乱用研究所]]は、大麻がより強力な薬物へのゲートウェイであるという主張を支持する研究を発表したが、大麻使用者の大多数に当てはまるわけではないとした。同研究所は、大麻使用が「他の合法的・違法な薬物の使用に先行する可能性が高い」とし、「調査の第1波において大麻使用を報告した成人は、大麻を使用しなかった成人と比較して、3年以内にアルコール使用障害を発症する可能性が高かった。調査開始時点ですでにアルコール使用障害を有していた者が大麻を使用した場合、その障害が悪化するリスクも高かった。大麻使用はニコチン依存など他の薬物使用障害とも関連している」と報告している。また、「これらの発見は、大麻が『ゲートウェイ・ドラッグ』であるという考えと一致している。しかしながら、大麻を使用する人の大多数は他の『より強力な』薬物を使用するには至らない。また、交差感作は大麻に特有のものではなく、アルコールおよびニコチンも他の薬物に対する脳の反応を高める下地を作る点で共通しており、大麻と同様に、より有害な薬物に進行する前に使用される傾向がある」と述べている。
In 2020, the [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]] released a study backing allegations that marijuana is a gateway to harder drugs, though not for the majority of marijuana users. The National Institute on Drug Abuse determined that marijuana use is "likely to precede use of other licit and illicit substances" and that "adults who reported marijuana use during the first wave of the survey were more likely than adults who did not use marijuana to develop an alcohol use disorder within 3 years; people who used marijuana and already had an alcohol use disorder at the outset were at greater risk of their alcohol use disorder worsening. Marijuana use is also linked to other substance use disorders including nicotine addiction." It also reported that "These findings are consistent with the idea of marijuana as a "gateway drug". However, the majority of people who use marijuana do not go on to use other, "harder" substances. Also, cross-sensitization is not unique to marijuana. Alcohol and nicotine also prime the brain for a heightened response to other drugs and are, like marijuana, also typically used before a person progresses to other, more harmful substances."
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==研究==
==Research==
{{See also/ja|:en:Medical cannabis research}}
{{See also|Medical cannabis research}}
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大麻に関する研究は、その植物が[[:en:Legality of cannabis|多くの国で違法]]であることから困難を伴う。研究目的で使用される標準化された大麻のサンプルを入手するのは難しく、アメリカの[[:en:Food and Drug Administration|食品医薬品局]]のような国家規制機関の認可を受けた場合に限られる。
Research on cannabis is challenging since the plant is [[Legality of cannabis|illegal in most countries]]. Research-grade samples of the drug are difficult to obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national regulatory agencies, such as the US [[Food and Drug Administration]].
There are also other difficulties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis also smoke tobacco. This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.
大麻は14世紀から一部の国で違法化され始め、20世紀半ばまでにはほとんどの国で違法となった。モーリシャスの植民地政府は1840年に、インド人契約労働者への影響を懸念して大麻を禁止した。同様の措置は1870年のシンガポールでも取られた。アメリカ合衆国では1906年にコロンビア特別区で初めて大麻販売が制限された。カナダでは、1923年の『The Opium and Narcotic Drug Act』により、国内での使用報告がないにもかかわらず大麻が刑事罰の対象となったが、2018年には娯楽・医療目的での使用が合法化された。
October 17, 2018 (2018-October-17)現在[update]、カナダで娯楽用大麻が合法化された際、ヒト用栄養補助食品および動物用代替医療製品でTHC抽出物が1千万分の10（10ppm）以下のものは販売が承認された。Nabiximols（商品名：サティベックス）は処方薬として使用されている。
国際連合のWorld Drug Reportによれば、大麻は「2010年に世界で最も広く生産され、取引され、消費された薬物」であり、2015年時点で世界における使用者数は1億2800万人から2億3800万人と推定された。
ゲートウェイ仮説に関連する代替理論として、共通依存傾向（common liability to addiction, CLA）理論がある。この理論では、何らかの理由で複数の娯楽用薬物を試す傾向にある個人が存在するとされており、「ゲートウェイ」とされる薬物は、単にハードドラッグよりも早い年齢で入手可能であるものにすぎない。研究者らは包括的なレビューにおいて、ゲートウェイ「理論」における出来事の連鎖を因果的なものとして提示することは、研究および介入の両方を妨げるため危険であると指摘している。
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乾燥した花穂（マリファナ）
キーフ1グラム
ハシシ
ハシシオイル
抽出物（乳製バター）
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Media related to Cannabis at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of marijuana at Wiktionary
