Food and drink prohibitions/ja: Difference between revisions

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===Living animals===

[[File:Oysters p1040741.jpg|thumb|''Raw oysters'', which are still alive, presented on a plate.]]

[[File:Ikizukuri.jpg|thumb|[[Ikizukuri]], live fish served as sashimi.]]

Islamic law, Judaic law (including [[Seven Laws of Noah|Noahide Law]]), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, [[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin]] 59a). However, in the case of a ''[[ben pekuah]]'' where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply. Eating oysters raw, [[ikizukuri]], and other similar cases would be considered a violation of this in Jewish law.

Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include [[eating live seafood]], such as "raw [[oyster]] on the half shell" and [[ikizukuri]] (live fish). [[Sashimi]] using live animals has been banned in some countries.

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===Offal===

[[File:MarketScene.jpg|thumb|Heads, [[Brain (as food)|brains]], trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.]]

[[File:Khash 1.jpg|thumb|[[Kale Pache]], a traditional soup made with lamb's head (including brain, eyes and tongues) and hooves in [[Iran]].]]

[[Offal]] is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as [[sweetbread]]s and [[kidney]]. Offal is a traditional part of many [[European cuisine|European]] and [[Asian cuisine]]s, including such dishes as the [[steak and kidney pie]] in the United Kingdom or [[Callos|''callos a la madrileña'']] in Spain. [[Haggis]] has been [[Scotland]]'s [[national dish]] since the time of [[Robert Burns]]. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called [["''buchada''"]], made with goats' stomach.

Except for heart, [[Beef tongue|tongue (beef)]], [[liver]] (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural [[sausage]] [[Casing (sausage)|casings]], organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example, [[tripe]] as ''[[Menudo (soup)|menudo]]'' or ''[[sopa de mondongo|mondongo]]'' among [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latinos and Hispanos]], [[chitterlings]] in the [[Southern United States]], [[scrapple]] on the Eastern Seaboard, [[fried-brain sandwich]]es in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], and beef [[testicle]]s called [[Rocky Mountain oysters]] or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served as ''huevos de toro'' or 'bull's eggs'.

In some regions, such as the [[European Union]], [[Brain (food)|brains]] and other organs which can transmit [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the [[food chain]] as [[specified risk material]]s.

Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient [[Cheesemaker|cheesemaking]] techniques utilize stomachs (which contain [[rennet]]) for turning [[milk]] into [[cheese]], a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that the ''process'' by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.

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===Poppy seed===

{{main|Poppy seed}}

[[Poppy seed]]s are used as condiments in many cultures, but the trace amounts of [[morphine]] and [[codeine]] present in the seeds can lead to a [[false positive]] when administering a drug test. In [[Singapore]], poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by the [[Central Narcotics Bureau]] (CNB).

===Pigs/pork===

{{Main|Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork}}

[[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) data reports [[pork]] as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden by Islam, Judaism and certain [[Christian denomination]]s, such as [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g. [[Qur'an]] 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115, and Deuteronomy 14:8. Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: the [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and [[Babylonia]]ns. In some instances, the taboo extended beyond eating pork, and it was also taboo to touch or even look at pigs.

The original reason for this taboo is debated. [[Maimonides]] seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eat [[feces]]. In the 19th century, some people attributed the pig taboo in the [[Middle East]] to the danger of the parasite [[trichinosis|trichina]], but this explanation is now out of favour. [[James George Frazer]] suggested that, in ancient Israel, Egypt and Syria, the pig was originally a sacred animal, which for that reason could not be eaten or touched; the taboo survived to a time when the pig was no longer regarded as sacred, and was therefore explained by reference to its being unclean.

More recently, [[Marvin Harris]] posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates because they require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice. Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are [[Omnivore|omnivorous]], not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. [[Mary Douglas]] has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.

While [[meat alternatives|pork alternatives]] (for example, by [[Impossible Foods]]) do not contain actual pork meat, some conservative religious groups, such as Islam, regard it as forbidden, similar to its meat-based counterpart as it is the said ''haram'' or non-kosher product the pork alternative is trying to mimic and present. Lab-grown pork might also be considered haram or non-kosher.

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===Rabbit===

{{Main|Rabbit#As food and clothing}}

[[File:Rabbit edit.jpg|thumb|[[Cottontail rabbit]]]]

The book of Leviticus in the [[Bible]] classifies the [[rabbit]] as [[unclean animals|unclean]] because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants). The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam, and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient in ''[[mulukhiya|molokheyya]]''), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence of [[Twelvers|Twelver]] Shia Islam.

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===Rats and mice===

{{further|Rat meat|Mouse#As food}}

In most Western cultures, [[rat]]s and [[mouse|mice]] are considered either unclean [[vermin]] or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of [[Bubonic plague|plague]].

In [[Ghana]], ''Thryonomys swinderianus'' locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) "[[Aethomys|Bush rat]]" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative of [[porcupine]]s and guinea pigs that inhabit [[Africa]], south of the [[Sahara|Saharan Desert]]. In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases of [[monkeypox]], an illness never before been seen in the [[Western Hemisphere]].

===Reptiles===

Judaism and Islam strictly forbid the consumption of [[reptile]]s, such as [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s. In other cultures, foods such as [[alligator]] are treasured as delicacies, and the animals are [[Crocodile farm|raised commercially]].

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===Vegetables, fruits and spices===

In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, consumption of vegetables of the [[Allium|onion]] [[genus]] are restricted. Adherents believe that these excite damaging passions. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or [[Hindu calendar|Hindu holy months]] of Shrawan, Puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.

[[Kashmiri people|Kashmiri]] Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as [[black pepper]] and [[chili pepper]], believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.

[[Jain vegetarianism|Jains]] not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also do not eat [[List of root vegetables|root vegetables]] (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe in [[ahimsa]]. In the hierarchy of living entities, overwintering plants such as onions are ranked higher than food crops such as wheat and rice. The ability of onions to observe the changing of the seasons and bloom in spring is believed to be an additional 'sense' absent in lower plants. The amount of bad karma generated depends on the number of senses the creature possesses and so it is thought prudent to avoid eating onions. This also means that in some North Indian traditions, effectively all overwintering plants are considered taboo.

Chinese [[Buddhist cuisine]] traditionally prohibits [[garlic]], ''[[Allium chinense]]'', [[asafoetida]], [[shallot]], and ''[[Allium victorialis]]'' (victory onion or mountain leek).

In [[Yazidism]], the eating of [[lettuce]] and [[Phaseolus lunatus|butter beans]] is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of [[Mosul]] in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.

The [[Pythagoreanism|followers of Pythagoras]] were vegetarians, and "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". However, [[Pythagorean diet|their creed]] prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the [[flatulence]] they cause, perhaps as protection from potential [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency|favism]], but most likely for [[magico-religious]] reasons. One legend about Pythagoras' death states that he was killed after he chose not to run through a fava bean field to escape his enemies.

Vegetables like [[broccoli]] and [[cauliflower]], while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as [[blackberry|blackberries]] and [[raspberry|raspberries]] are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit.

The common [[Egyptian cuisine|Egyptian dish]] [[mulukhiyah]], a soup whose primary ingredient is [[jute]] leaves (which did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis. While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the [[Druze]], who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat ''mulukhiyah'' of any kind to this day.

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===Whales===

{{Main|Whale meat}}

Sunni Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales that have died of natural causes as there is a famous Sunni hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such. Whale meat is forbidden (haram) in Shia Islam as whales do not have scales. In much of the world, whale meat is not eaten due to the endangerment of whales but it is not traditionally forbidden. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to import whale meat into the country.

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==Prohibited drinks==

===Alcoholic beverages===

{{See also|Christianity and alcohol|Islam and alcohol|Religion and alcohol}}

Some religions – including Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, [[Rastafari movement]], [[Baháʼí Faith]], and various branches of Christianity such as the [[Baptists]], the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], the [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter-day Saints]], Seventh-day Adventists and the [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] – forbid or discourage the consumption of [[alcoholic beverage]]s.

The Hebrew Bible describes a [[Nazirite]] vow ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 6:1-21) that includes [[abstinence]] from alcohol, specifically [[wine]] and probably [[Barley wine|barley beer]] (according to the [[Septuagint]] translation and the [[Bauer lexicon]]: ''σικερα'', from the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] shikaru, for ''barley beer''). The [[New Jewish Publication Society of America Version|New JPS]] translation is: "wine and any other intoxicant". Other versions such as the NIV prohibit both alcohol and all alcohol derived products such as wine vinegar. There is no general taboo against alcohol in Judaism.

There are also cultural taboos against the consumption of alcohol, reflected for example in the [[Teetotalism]] or [[Temperance movement]]. There is also something of a cultural taboo in several countries, against the consumption of alcohol by women during pregnancy for health reasons, as seen, for example, in the [[Maternity Protection Convention, 2000]] by [[International Labour Conference|ILO]].

'''Absinthe'''

[[Absinthe]] was made illegal in the United States in 1912 because of its high alcohol percentage.  Absinthe was legalized again in 2007. It was rumored to have been a cause for hallucinations, giving it the nickname “The Green Fairy.”

That ye abstain from meats offered to [[idolatry|idols]], and from blood, and from things strangled, and from [[fornication]]: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well.|}}