ハラール
Halal/ja
ハラール（حلال）は、アラビア語で「許された」を意味する言葉である。この用語は、イスラム教の食に関する規定、特にイスラム式食肉処理に従って食肉処理された肉と関連付けられることが多いが、ビジネス、金融（高利貸し（リバ）の禁止など）、および日常生活における倫理的慣行も規定している。これには、公正、社会正義、動物の扱いなど、より広範な倫理的配慮が含まれる。ハラールの概念は、イスラム教の慣行の中心であり、クルアーンとスンナ（預言者ムハンマドの教えと慣行）に由来する。
クルアーンにおいて、ハラールという用語はハラーム（'forbidden, unlawful'）という用語と対比されている。ハラールまたはハラームとされるものの指針は、イスラーム法学（フィクフ）に定められており、学者はイスラームの原則を順守するためにこれらの指針を解釈する。この二項対立は、「五つの規定」として知られる、より複雑な分類に発展した。: 義務、推奨、中立、嫌悪、禁止である。 イスラーム法学者の間では、ハラールという用語がこれら5つの分類のうち最初の2つを指すのか、あるいは最初の4つを指すのかについて意見が分かれている。近年、大衆を動員しようとするイスラーム運動や、一般大衆向けに執筆する著作家は、ハラールとハラームのより単純な区別を強調している。
現代社会において、ハラールの概念は個人の行動や食事制限を超え、特に食品、製薬、化粧品、金融分野における世界的な産業となっている。ハラール認証機関は、製品やサービスがムスリムが消費するために必要な基準を満たしていることを保証し、世界中の多くの企業が、特に世界のムスリム人口の増加に伴い、ハラール製品に対する需要の高まりに応えるためにハラール認証を求めている。ハラール製品やサービスに対する需要の増加は、特にマレーシア、インドネシア、中東など、ムスリム人口が多い国々において、ハラール経済の成長を促している。多くの非ムスリムが多数を占める国々もまた、自国のムスリム市民や世界の消費者のニーズを満たすために、ハラール市場に参入している。
クルアーンにおいて
ハラールとハラームという語は、合法または許容されるものと、非合法または禁止されるものの範疇を示すためにクルアーンで用いられる一般的な用語である。クルアーンにおいて、語根ḥ-l-lは合法性を意味し、また巡礼者が儀礼的な状態から退出し、俗なる状態に入ることを示す場合もある。これら両義において、それは語根ḥ-r-m（cf. ハラームおよびイフラーム）によって伝えられる意味の反対を持つ。文字通りの意味では、語根ḥr-mは解消（例えば、誓いの破棄）や降臨（例えば、神の怒りの降臨）を指すことがある。合法性は通常、クルアーンにおいて、神を明示的または暗示的な主語として、動詞ahalla（'to make lawful'）によって示される。
食物
イスラム教は、特定にハディースやクルアーンにおいて禁止されていない限り、すべての食物を一般的にハラールと見なす。具体的に、ハラール食品は以下の条件を満たすものである。
- Made, produced, manufactured, processed, and stored using machinery, equipment, and/or utensils that have been cleaned according to Islamic law (shariah).
- Free from any component that Muslims are prohibited from eating according to Islamic law.
The most common example of haram (non-halal) food is pork. While pork is the only meat that categorically may not be consumed by Muslims (the Quran forbids it, Surah 2:173 and 16:115) other foods not in a state of purity are also considered haram. The criteria for non-pork items include their source, the cause of the animal's death and how it was processed. The majority of Islamic scholars consider shellfish and other seafood halal. Vegetarian cuisine is halal if it does not contain alcohol.
Muslims must also ensure that all foods (particularly processed foods), as well as non-food items like cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, are halal. Frequently, these products contain animal by-products or other ingredients that are not permissible for Muslims to eat or use on their bodies. Foods which are not considered halal for Muslims to consume include blood and intoxicants such as alcoholic beverages.
A Muslim who would otherwise starve to death is allowed to eat non-halal food if there is no halal food available.
Several food companies offer halal processed foods and products, including halal foie gras, spring rolls, chicken nuggets, ravioli, lasagna, pizza and baby food. Halal ready meals are a growing consumer market for Muslims in Britain and America and are offered by an increasing number of retailers.
Opinions on GMO foods are mixed, although there is no widely accepted prohibition from consuming them. Some clerics and scholars have expressed support, arguing that such food production methods are halal because they contribute to human well-being. Voices in opposition to GMOs argue that there is no need for genetic modification of food crops because God created everything perfectly and man does not have any right to manipulate anything that God has created. Some others have raised concern about the theoretical consumption of specific GMO foods produced using genes from pigs.
Halal meat
Muslims believe in what they see as the ethical treatment of animals. Halal practices align with this philosophy by promoting kindness, compassion, and humane treatment throughout the entire lifecycle of the animal. The emphasis on swift and painless slaughter respects the animal's dignity and minimizes suffering.
Halal meat must come from a supplier that uses halal practices. Dhabīḥah (ذَبِيْحَة) is the prescribed method of slaughter for all meat sources, excluding fish and other sealife, per Islamic law. This method of slaughtering animals consists of using a sharp knife to make an incision that cuts the front of the throat, oesophagus and jugular veins but not the spinal cord. The head of an animal that is slaughtered using halal methods should be aligned with the qiblah (the direction a Muslim faces when praying). In addition to the direction, permitted animals should be slaughtered upon utterance of the Islamic prayer "Bismillah, Allahu Akbar" (In the name of God, God is greatest).
The slaughter must be performed by a Muslim. Carrion (carcasses of dead animals, such as animals who died in the wild) cannot be eaten. Additionally, an animal that has been strangled, beaten (to death), killed by a fall, gored (to death), savaged by a beast of prey (unless finished off by a human), or sacrificed on a stone altar cannot be eaten.
Compatibility with other religions
Animals slaughtered by People of the Book (Jews and Christians) can also be considered halal if the slaughter is carried out by jugular slice, the blood drained and the name of Allah invoked. As a result, kosher meat is permitted by some Muslim communities, and is sometimes substituted for halal meat.
Sikhism forbids eating meat from animals that were slaughtered slowly or with religious ritual, referred to as kutha meat. This includes halal meat preparation. The religiously recommended method of slaughter among Sikhs, known as jhatka, is likewise incompatible with halal principles, as with this method not all of the blood is drained from the meat.
Concerns for animal welfare
Stunning of the animal is only permitted if it is necessary to calm down a violent animal. British supermarkets report the use of stunning before slaughter for halal meats. The 2011 UK Food Standards Agency figures suggest that 84% of cattle, 81% of sheep and 88% of chickens slaughtered for halal meat were stunned before they died. Tesco says "the only difference between the halal meat it sells and other meat is that [the animal] was blessed as [it] was killed."
Concerns about animal suffering from slaughter without prior stunning has resulted in the ban of slaughter of unstunned animals in Denmark, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.
Certification
Certification for halal products is given by legal authorities in most Muslim-majority countries, while in other countries, it is voluntarily acquired by companies and issued by non-governmental organizations for an annual fee.
Halal certification in the US
Halal certifications are provided by a number of agencies in the United States. Depending on how the certification will be used for domestic or international export, the certification may need to be done by a qualified entity. If it's for domestic use a local agency with proper knowledge, training and background can issue a halal certificate. If the certificate is going to be used for export then the halal certifier needs to be accredited by the country the halal product is being exported to. A company that needs to certify its product must do their due diligence when hiring a certifier. There are a number of halal certifiers in the US including ISWA Halal; ISA Halal; Halal Monitoring Services (HMS), based out of Chicago, Illinois; the Halal Food Standards Alliance of America (HFSAA), based out of Oakland, California; and Halal Watch World, based in New York. Another agency that can help companies identify and screen the proper halal certifier is the US Halal Consultants based in Fairfax, Virginia.
Criticism
In Australia, halal food certification has been criticized by groups who claim that certifying foods as halal leads to consumers subsidizing a particular religious belief. Australian Federation of Islamic Councils spokesman Keysar Trad told a journalist in July 2014 that this was an attempt to exploit anti-Muslim sentiments in Australia. A study in 2022 showed that halal certifications did not necessarily reflect the extent to which a halal product came about in whole, and called for greater means of assurance and transparent qualitative methods of halal certification.
Business
The Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry estimated the global industry value of halal food consumer purchases to be $1.1 trillion in 2013, accounting for 16.6 percent of the global food and beverage market, with an annual growth of 6.9 percent. Growth regions include Indonesia ($197 million market value in 2012) and Turkey ($100 million). The European Union market for halal food has an estimated annual growth of around 15 percent and is worth an estimated $30 billion, approximately $8 billion of which are accounted for in France.
The halal food and beverage industry has also made a significant impact on supermarkets and other food business such as restaurants. French supermarkets had halal food sales totalling $210 million in 2011, a 10.5% growth from five years prior. In France, the market for halal foods is even larger than the market for other types of common foods. For example, in 2010, the market for halal foods and beverages in France was nearly twice that of organic foods. Auchan, a large French supermarket chain, now sells 80 certified halal meat products, along with 30 pre-cooked halal meals and 40 frozen halal products. Upscale restaurants and catering services have also added halal foods to their menus. In addition, many beverage companies such as Evian have taken the effort to add a halal stamp on their products to show that their water and other beverages are pure and not haram or forbidden under Islamic law.
Interaction with global regulation
Halal standards and regulations have been considered as an obstacle to international trade while the discrimination towards import products also lacks transparency. Trade disputes related to halal have emerged even among Muslim and Islamic countries, for instance at the regional level within the ASEAN.
European Union
On 17 December 2020, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that member countries may ban religious slaughter to promote animal welfare and could impose non-lethal stunning before the killing of animals. The ruling was in response to a challenge to a 2017 Flemish government prohibition on the killing of animals without prior non-lethal (also called reversible) stunning by Jewish and Muslim associations.
India
The Muslim community has been receptive of halal food and certification. Members of the right-wing Hindutva groups in India have protested against the sale of Halal food in India. Bajrang Dal, Vishva Hindu Parishad and other Hindutva groups have run door to door campaigns in the state of Karnataka, asking people not to purchase halal meat. In March 2022 the Hindutva group Bajrang Dal physically attacked a Muslim meat seller, five persons were arrested in the incident. In March 2022, C. T. Ravi, national general secretary for the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party, referred to halal food as "economic jihad".
United Kingdom
August 2012年現在[update], an estimated 27 UK Tesco supermarkets, in addition to most urban Asda and many Morrisons supermarkets, had halal meat counters, selling meat approved for consumption by Muslims. According to the Food Standards Agency Animal Welfare Update report, published September 2017, 16 percent of animals slaughtered by the halal method were not stunned before slaughter, which violates RSPCA standards on animal welfare. However, it is legal in the UK due to an exemption in the law granted to Jews and Muslims.
Non-food applications
In addition to food and diet, a halal lifestyle can include travel, finance, clothing, media, recreation, cosmetics. A halal lifestyle can even involve professional practises ranging from industrial and manufacturing logistics to supply chains.
Pharmaceuticals
Some Muslims refrain from using pharmaceuticals that are not halal. This distinction is most noticeably practiced in Malaysia, which has a large halal pharmaceutical industry, complete with government regulations to make sure the products are tayyib. On the other hand, the Quran obliges Muslims to seek treatment, including preventive ones, for diseases regardless of what the care provider believes in. In particular, medicines containing animal products like gelatin have been deemed permissible by a 1995 council of Islamic jurisprudents, making such distinction unnecessary. The decentralized nature of Islam allows both opinions to exist.
Vaccines
The controversy over pharmaceuticals has led to the refusal of childhood vaccination in some Muslim-majority countries, despite many religious leaders expressly endorsing vaccination. It is also a concern in the rollout of the COVID-19 vaccine.
Personal care
Feminine hygiene products and nappies have been certified as halal in Malaysia. Such certification is not required by the religion, nor is there a demand from Muslims. Critics consider such "unnecessary" certification as little more than a marketing gimmick, e.g., halal labels on clearly vegetarian soft drinks or naturally grown food items like cereals, pulses, vegetables and processed foods made exclusively from vegetable products.
関連項目
- イスラム倫理
- アル・ジャミヤ - シーア派のイスラム教の聖典であり、すべてのハラールの詳細が記されている。
- イスティラール
- オーストラリアのハラール認証
- ヨーロッパのハラール認証
- 食のタブー
- カシュルート（ユダヤ教食物律）
- キリスト教の食物律
- スコットランドの豚肉のタブー
参考文献
- Yungman, Limor, "Food", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I.
外部リンク
 | この記事は、クリエイティブ・コモンズ・表示・継承ライセンス3.0のもとで公表されたウィキペディアの項目Halal(19 August 2025, at 20:50編集記事参照)を翻訳して二次利用しています。 |