飲食の禁止
Food and drink prohibitions/ja
一部の人々は、様々な宗教的、文化的、法的、あるいはその他の社会的な禁止に従って、特定の食物や飲料を摂取しません。これらの禁止の多くはタブーに該当する。多くの食物タブーやその他の禁止は、特定の動物の肉、例えば哺乳類（齧歯類など）、爬虫類、両生類、魚、軟体動物、甲殻類、昆虫などを禁じている。これは、植物性食品よりも肉に対して嫌悪反応がより頻繁に起こることと関係しているかもしれない。禁止の中には、動物の特定の部位や排泄物に特化しているものもあれば、植物や菌類の摂取を控えるものもある。
一部の食物禁止は、どのような食物や食物の組み合わせが食べてはならないか、動物がどのように屠殺されるべきか、あるいは調理されるべきかについて、宗教法やその他の形で定められた規則として定義される。これらの禁止の起源は様々である。ある場合には健康上の配慮や実用的な理由が背景にあると考えられ、別のケースでは人間の象徴体系に関連しているとされる。
ある種の食物は、特定の宗教的な期間（例：四旬節）、人生の特定の段階（例：妊娠）、あるいは特定の階層の人々（例：司祭）に対して禁止されることがあります。これは、その食物が通常は許容されている場合でもです。比較的に見ると、ある集団には不適格とされるものが、同じ文化圏あるいは異なる文化圏の別の集団には完全に受け入れられていることがあります。食物タブーは通常、人間を精神的または身体的な害から守ることを目的としているように見えますが、その存在理由として文化内で他にも様々な説明が与えられます。宗教的・精神的起源とされるものを含め、多くのタブーには生態学的あるいは医学的背景が見られます。食物タブーは資源の有効利用を助けることがありますが、特定の集団のみに適用されると、食物の独占につながることもあります。ある特定のグループや部族が共有するタブーは、グループの結束を促し、他者と区別されることでアイデンティティを保ち、「帰属意識」を生み出すのに寄与します。
原因
様々な宗教は、特定の種類の食物の摂取を禁じている。例えば、ユダヤ教では、食べてよいものといけないものについての厳密な規則である’’カシュルート’‘が定められており、特に肉と乳製品の混合が禁じられている。イスラム教の食事規定でも同様の規則があり、食品を’’ハラーム’’（禁じられた）と’’ハラール’’（許された）に分類する。ジャイナ教徒は、宗教的な指示に従って菜食主義を守ることが多いです。ヒンドゥー教徒の中には牛肉を食べない人もおり、特に上位のカーストに属する人々の中には、菜食主義を理想とし、実践する人もいる。場合によっては、食品そのものではなく、調理の過程が問題視されることもある。例えば、中世初期のキリスト教では、調理されていない食物は疑わしいものとされることがあった。ベーダに帰属されるある悔悛書には、生の食物を食べた者に対する（軽い）悔悛の方法が示されているし、聖ボニファティウスは、教皇ザカリアスに、ベーコンが食用として適切になるまでどのくらい塩漬けにする必要があるのかを問う手紙を書いている（この手紙はボニファティウス書簡集第87通として残っている）。また、ハワイでは1819年までカプ制度が用いられていた。
公式な規則とは別に、ある動物の肉の摂取に対する文化的タブーも存在します。特定の社会では、一般的に「食品」として認識されていない範囲の肉は、食べるべきでないとされます。いわゆる「珍しい肉」——つまり、個人または文化にとって馴染みのない動物由来の食品——は、一般的に嫌悪反応を引き起こし、それが文化的タブーとして表現されます。たとえば、犬肉は、特定の状況下では韓国、ベトナム、中国で食べられるが、ほぼすべての西洋諸国では食物として不適切とされている。同様に、馬肉は英語圏ではほとんど食べられていませんが、カザフスタン、日本、イタリア、フランスなどでは国家料理の一部である。
時には、食物禁止が国家や地方の法律に組み込まれることもあります。たとえば、インドの多くの地域では牛の屠殺が禁止されており、アメリカ合衆国では馬の屠殺が禁止されている。中国に返還された後も、香港ではイギリス統治下に制定された、犬および猫の肉の供給を禁じる法律が撤廃されていない。
環境保護運動、倫理的消費、その他の活動家運動は、新たな食物禁止や食事ガイドラインを生み出している。比較的新しい文化的食物タブーの一例として、絶滅危惧種やその他法律や国際条約によって保護されている動物の肉や卵の摂取の禁止がある。例としては、一部のクジラ、ウミガメ、渡り鳥などが挙げられる。同様に、持続可能な水産物の助言リストおよび認証は、持続不可能な漁業方法に基づき、特定の海産物の摂取を控えるよう推奨する。有機認証では、化学合成物の使用や遺伝子組み換え生物、放射線照射、下水汚泥の使用を禁じている。フェアトレード運動とその認証制度は、搾取的な労働条件下で生産された食物やその他の製品の消費を思いとどまらせようとしている。地産地消運動や’’100マイルダイエット’’のような他の社会運動も、非地元産の食品の不使用を奨励しており、ヴィーガニズムでは、いかなる種類の動物性製品も使用または消費しないことを目指している。
禁止食品
両生類
ユダヤ教では、両生類（例えばカエル）の摂取を厳格に禁じている。この制限はレビ記11章29–30節および42–43節に記されている。両生類および他の禁忌とされる動物から派生した化学製品もまた避けなければならない。
他の文化では、カエルの脚のような食品は珍味として重宝されることがあり、状況によっては商業的に飼育されることもある。しかし、絶滅危惧種であるカエルが過剰消費によって絶滅の危機に瀕しているとの環境的懸念から、フランスなどの国ではその食用利用を制限する法的措置が講じられてきた。フランス農業省は1976年に在来のカエル種を保護する措置を開始し、その後も取り組みは継続されている。動物の大量商業捕獲は1980年に禁止されたが、国際的な輸入や個人による狩猟と調理は多くの地域で合法のままである。
コウモリ
ユダヤ教では申命記法典および祭司法典が明確にコウモリを禁じている。すべての肉食陸上動物の肉と同様に、コウモリの肉はイスラム教においてもハラーム（禁忌）とされる。
鳥類
トーラー（レビ記11章13節）には、ワシ、ハゲワシ、ミサゴを食べてはならないと明示されている。現在一部地域で肉用に飼育されているダチョウも、レビ記11章16節のいくつかの解釈においては明確に禁じられている。ラビたちは、猛禽類やスカベンジャー（自然界の掃除屋）を禁じる伝統が、他の鳥類とは異なる扱いを示しているとし、ニワトリ、アヒル、ガチョウ、シチメンチョウの摂取は許容されると解釈している。
これとは対照的に、イスラム教の食事規定ではダチョウの摂取は認められているが、鉤爪やかぎ爪で狩りをする猛禽類はユダヤ教と同様に禁じられている。
スカベンジャーや腐肉を食べる動物、例えばハゲワシやカラスは、多くの文化において病気の媒介者、不潔な存在、死を連想させるものとして食用を避けられている。例外としてルークは田舎料理として知られており、近年ではスコットランド料理のレストランでロンドンにて提供されたこともある。今日の西洋文化では、ほとんどの人々が鳴禽を裏庭の野生動物として扱い、食用とは見なしていない。
バロットは発育途中の鳥の胚（通常はアヒルまたはニワトリ）を殻ごと茹でて食べる料理である。クルアーンの一部には、適切に屠殺されていない動物やその製品は摂取してはならないという教義があり、そうした動物や製品は「maytah」とされる。バロットは発育途中の胚を含む卵であるため、イスラム教徒の間ではこれが「ハラーム」、すなわち「禁じられたもの」と見なされている。
ホオジロモズモドキは、フランスの美食家たちの間で近年タブー食品として知られるようになった。これらの小鳥は生きたまま捕獲され、強制的に餌を与えられた後、アルマニャックに溺死させられ、「丸焼きにされ、骨ごとすべて食べられる」。食事中、食べる者はリネンのナプキンで頭を覆い、貴重な香りを閉じ込めるため、または神の目から隠れるためだと信じられている。
ラクダ
ラクダの肉を食べることはトーラーによって厳格に禁じられている。トーラーは、反芻（逆流消化）する点ではウシ、ヒツジ、ヤギ、シカ、レイヨウ、キリン（これらはすべてコーシャー）と共通するものの、割れた蹄を持たないためラクダを不浄と見なしている。これらの動物と同様に、ラクダ（およびリャマ）は多室胃を持つ反芻動物である。ラクダは偶蹄類であり、足は二つに分かれているが、その足は硬い蹄ではなく柔らかいパッドで形成されている。
イスラム教では、ラクダの肉を食べることは認められており、サウジアラビアおよびアラビア半島のイスラム文化圏では伝統的な食物となっている。
ウシ
ウシは、インドなどの国々において伝統的に崇拝の対象とされている。ヒンドゥー教徒の中でも、特にバラモンは菜食主義であり、肉の摂取を厳格に控える。肉を食べる者であっても牛肉の摂取は避ける傾向にあり、これはウシがヒンドゥー教において神聖な存在とされているためである。例えば、伝統では女神であるカーマデーヌが願いを叶える神牛として現れるとされ、このような物語は世代を超えて語り継がれている。
牛の屠殺とは対照的に、乳製品（牛乳、ヨーグルト、特にギーと呼ばれるバターの一種）の摂取はインドで非常に一般的である。牛由来の製品はヒンドゥー教において重要な役割を果たしており、とりわけ牛乳は神聖視され、宗教儀式に頻繁に用いられている。
雄牛は農業初期において主要な労働力および輸送手段であり、インドが農耕社会へと移行する中で、ウシは非常に有用な動物であることが証明された。このような必要性から生まれた敬意が、ウシを食用として殺すことを避ける理由となった。例えば、飢饉に見舞われた村が雄牛を食べてしまえば、次の作付けの季節に犂や荷車を引く動物がいなくなってしまう。しかし、この仮説を裏付ける証拠はほとんど見つかっていない。飢饉に苦しむ地域では、次の季節まで生き延びるためにウシを食べることもある。
インドの法律では、雌牛の屠殺はほぼすべての州で禁止されており、例外はケーララ州、西ベンガル州および北東部の七姉妹州である。牛の屠殺や違法な輸送に関与した者は、多くの州で投獄される可能性がある。牛の屠殺は、多くのヒンドゥー教徒にとって極めて挑発的な問題である。
一部の中国仏教徒も牛肉の摂取を控えるよう勧めているが、それは禁忌とは見なされていない。しかし、スリランカの仏教徒（シンハラ人）にとっては、それは禁忌であり、牛の乳や労働力によって生活が支えられていることに対して「恩知らず」であると考えられている。
ミャンマーの仏教徒にも牛肉の摂取に対する禁忌がある。彼らは、ウシを人間と共に田畑で働く動物と見なしているためである。ただし、マンダレーやヤンゴンなどの都市部においては、厳密な禁忌とはされていない。
インドネシア・ジャワ島のクドゥス市では、住民の大多数がイスラム教徒であるにもかかわらず、牛肉の摂取に対する禁忌が存在する。これはヒンドゥー教徒への配慮に基づくものである。
チューインガム
シンガポールでは、1992年からチューインガムの販売が禁止されている。現在、シンガポールでガムを噛むことは違法ではないが、特定の例外を除き、輸入および販売が禁止されている。2004年以降、治療用、歯科用、ニコチン含有のチューインガムには例外が設けられ、医師または登録薬剤師から購入できる。
甲殻類およびその他の海産物
魚類以外のほぼすべての海産物、すなわち貝類、ロブスター、エビ、ザリガニなどは、水中に生息しながらひれおよびうろこの両方を持たないため、ユダヤ教においては禁止されている。
一般的な規則として、スンニ派イスラム教の3つの法学派では、ハナフィー派を除き、すべての海産物の摂取が許可されている。シーア派の多数が従うジャファル法学派では、うろこを持たない魚類以外の海産物は禁止されており、エビのみが例外とされている。
ハチミツ
ハチミツは、蜜および甘露をミツバチが吐き戻したものである。ミツバチ自体は食物としてコーシャではないが、ハチミツは例外としてコーシャとされている。通常、不浄な動物から得られた産物は不浄であるという規則に反するように見えるが、この点についてはタルムードで議論されており、ハチミツの起源は花にあり、ミツバチはそれを貯蔵し、脱水してハチミツにするのみであることから、摂取が許可されていると説明されている。これは、ミツバチが直接生成するローヤルゼリーとは異なり、ローヤルゼリーはコーシャではないとされる。
昆虫
ユダヤ教およびサマリア教において、特定のイナゴはコーシャ食品とされ得る（レビ記11章22節）。それ以外の昆虫はコーシャではないとされる。カシュルートの規定では、他の食品にも昆虫が混入していないかを入念に確認することが求められる。
イスラム教においては、ほとんどの昆虫の摂取は禁止されているが、イナゴは合法的な食品とされ、儀式的屠殺を必要としない。
犬
西洋諸国では、犬肉を食べることは一般にタブーとされているが、飢餓の脅威にさらされた場合にはこのタブーが破られることもあった。フリードリヒ大王の時代以来、ドイツではすべての主要な危機時に犬肉が食された記録があり、「封鎖マトン（blockade mutton）」という別称でも知られている。20世紀初頭には、ドイツにおいて犬肉の消費は一般的であった。アメリカ合衆国では、ドイツ移民が販売するフランクフルトソーセージの肉の出所に疑念が生じたことから、「ホットドッグ」という語が生まれた。1937年には、トリヒナに対応するため、豚、犬、イノシシ、キツネ、アナグマなどの肉食動物を対象とする食肉検査法が導入された。1986年以降、ドイツでは犬肉の販売は禁止されている。2009年には、ポーランドのチェンストホヴァ近郊の農場で犬を飼育し、ラード（smalec）に加工していたことが発覚し、スキャンダルとなった。
スイスでは、2012年のThe Localによる記事で、国内における犬肉の消費が続いていることが報告された。ドイツ語圏のアッペンツェルおよびザンクト・ガレンの農家が、個人的に犬を屠殺しているという憶測も浮上した。
古代ヒンドゥー教の文献（例：ManusmṛtiやSushruta Samhitaなどの医療文献）において、「犬の肉」は最も不浄（かつ毒性の強い）食品とされていた。犬肉はまた、ユダヤ教およびイスラム教の食規定においても不浄とされており、両宗教において犬肉の摂取は禁じられている。
アイルランド神話では、アルスター伝説の英雄Cú Chulainnが、犬肉を食べるという自身のタブーを破るか、もてなしを断るかの選択（モートンのフォーク）に迫られたとされる。彼は犬肉を食べることを選択し、それが死の原因となったとされる。
メキシコでは、先コロンブス期にショロイツクィントリという無毛の犬種が一般に食用とされていたが、植民地化後はこの習慣は廃れた。
東アジアでは、中国、ベトナム、北朝鮮および韓国を除き、ほとんどの国で犬肉の消費は稀である。これは、イスラム教や仏教の価値観、あるいは台湾における動物権利の意識によるものである。満州族には犬肉を食べることに対する禁忌があり、彼らの隣接する東北アジアの民族の一部では犬肉を食す文化もあるが、満州族自身は犬の毛皮で作られた帽子を着用することすら避ける。犬肉に対する禁忌は、満州族に加え、中国のモンゴル族、ミャオ族、中国系ムスリム、チベット族、ヤオ族、イ族にも見られる。インドネシアでは、イスラム教徒が多数を占めるため、犬肉の消費は禁止されているが、キリスト教徒であるバタック族およびミナハサ族の一部では、伝統的に犬肉を食する文化が存在する。
ニューギニア高地のウラプミン族は、近隣の部族とは異なり、犬を殺したり食べたりしない。また、犬が自分たちの食べ物に息を吹きかけることすら許さない。
クマ
クマはユダヤ教においてコーシャ動物と見なされていない。イスラム教においても、すべての肉食性の陸生動物と同様に、クマの肉は禁じられている。
ネコ
西洋世界の多く、特にアメリカ大陸およびヨーロッパでは、ネコを食べることに対して強いタブーが存在する。ネコの肉は、ユダヤ教およびイスラム教において禁じられており、両宗教は肉食動物の摂取を禁じている。西洋諸国では、ネコはペットまたは害獣の駆除を目的とした作業動物として扱われることが一般的であり、食用動物としては認識されていないため、ネコの摂取は多くの人々にとって野蛮な行為と見なされている。
en:Switzerlandスイスにおいても、The Localが2012年に発表した報告では、ネコ肉の消費が継続していることが明らかにされた。
Eggs
Consumption of eggs is permissible in all Abrahamic faiths.
Jains abstain from eating eggs. Many Hindu and Orthodox Sikh vegetarians also refrain from eating eggs.
An egg that naturally contains a spot of blood may not be eaten under Jewish and Islamic tradition, but eggs without any blood are commonly consumed (and are not considered to be meat, so may be eaten with dairy).
Elephants
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Buddhists are forbidden from eating elephant meat.
Elephant meat is also not considered kosher by Jewish dietary laws because elephants do not have cloven hooves and are not ruminants.
Some scholars of Islamic dietary laws have ruled that it is forbidden for Muslims to eat elephant because elephants fall under the prohibited category of fanged or predatory animals.
Hindus strictly avoid any contact with elephant meat due to the importance of the god Ganesha who is widely worshipped by Hindus.
The Kalika Purana distinguishes bali (sacrifice) and mahabali (great sacrifice), for the ritual killing of goats, elephant, respectively, though the reference to humans in Shakti theology is symbolic and done in effigy in modern times.
Fish
Speak not to me with a mouth that eats fish
—
Among the Somali people, most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.
There are taboos on eating fish among many upland pastoralists and agriculturalists (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to East Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where Cushitic languages are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of Nilo-Saharan and Semitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen. The few Bantu and Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the tsetse fly and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by wandering pastoralists, the principal fish-avoiders. Zambia and Mozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.
There is also another center of fish avoidance in Southern Africa, among mainly Bantu speakers. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the Khoisan. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.
Certain species of fish, such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all species of catfish, are also forbidden by Judaism. Although they live in water, they appear to have no scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this. Catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni madh'hab. The Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids all species of fish that do not have scales, as well as all shell fish species except prawns.
Many tribes of the Southwestern United States, including the Navajo, Apache, and Zuñi, have a taboo against fish and other aquatic animals, including waterfowl.
The people of the Blackfoot Confederacy have a taboo against the consumption against fish (as well as birds including waterfowl, though the fish taboo has endured the most through generations). According to a lecture by Grant Manyheads of Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park, the Blackfoot's cuisine was based in a belief that only certain animals, those with four legs and hooves and which grazed on grass, were seen as "clean" and thus suitable for consumption. This meant that any other animals, including fish, birds (especially waterfowl), and clawed animals such as bears and dogs or wolves, were not considered suitable or clean enough to eat. However, this taboo was broken in times of need and starvation. Breaking the taboo was seen as an especially desperate act among the Blackfoot, but was not seen to carry any particular religious or spiritual repercussions, hence the allowance of breaking the taboo out of desperation.
Norse settlers in Greenland (10th–15th centuries AD) may have developed a taboo against fish consumption, as recounted in Jared Diamond's Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. This is unusual, as Norsemen did not generally have a taboo against fish, Diamond noting that "Fish bones account for much less than 0.1% of animal bones recovered at Greenland Norse archeological sites, compared to between 50 and 95% at most contemporary Iceland, northern Norway, and Shetland sites." However, this has been disputed by archaeologists.
Foie gras
Foie gras, the fatty liver of geese that have been force-fed according to French law, has been the subject of controversy and prohibitions exist in different parts of the world. In July 2014, India banned the import of foie gras making it the first and only country in the world to do so, causing dismay among some of the nation's chefs. In Australia, the production of foie gras is currently forbidden, though it is legal to import it. In August 2003, Argentina banned foie gras production as it is considered a mistreatment or an act of cruelty to animals. In 2023 foie gras production was banned in the Flemish Region of Belgium.
Animal fetuses
Many countries observe this as a delicacy but it is a taboo in most countries. Considered as corpses, fetuses of goats and sheep are a delicacy in Anglo-Indian culture, despite being taboo in both parent cultures (English and Indian). This Anglo-Indian dish is known as "kutti pi" (fetus bag).
Fungi
Vedic Brahmins, Gaudiya Vaishnavas, tantriks and some Buddhist priests abstain from fungi, which are eschewed as they grow at night.
In Iceland, rural parts of Sweden and Western Finland, although not taboo, mushrooms were not widely eaten before the Second World War. They were viewed as food for cows and were also associated with the stigma of being wartime and poverty food. This is in contrast to the days of the Roman Empire, when mushrooms were viewed as a delicacy of the highest order and were held in high regard as food for emperors.
Guinea pigs, or cuy, are commonly eaten in Peru, in the southwestern cities and villages of Colombia, and among some populations in the highlands of Ecuador, mostly in the Andes highlands. Cuyes can be found on the menu of restaurants in Lima and other cities in Peru, as well as in Pasto, Colombia. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations. In 2004, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation took legal action to stop vendors serving cuy at an Ecuadorian festival in Flushing Meadows Park. New York State allows the consumption of guinea pigs, but New York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.
Giraffe
Although giraffes are technically considered kosher (since they chew their cuds and have split hooves), the more orthodox interpretation of Kashrut still forbids consumption of the meat, therefore marking the giraffe, despite with otherwise permissible characteristics, as non-kosher. The reason is the animal has no tradition of permissibility, meaning not allowed to be eaten, despite its signs of being a kosher animal. In addition, its large size and more aggressive behaviour puts a strain on logistics when performing shechita (ritual slaughtering). Their vulnerable status has also played a role in prohibition by many rabbis. The long neck of the giraffe being difficult to perform the slaughter is not the reason why giraffe is non-kosher, despite common knowledge.
Herbs
Some adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church avoid basil due to its association with the cross of Christ. It is believed that the cross was discovered in 325 AD by Saint Helen on a hill covered in beautiful, fragrant basil bushes, a hitherto unknown plant. The plant was named βασιλικόν φυτόν (basilikón fytón) "royal plant" and today is grown and admired rather than eaten. Fine basil plants are brought to church every year on 14 September to commemorate this legend in a celebration known as the Elevation of the Holy Cross.
Horse meat
Horse meat is part of the cuisine of many countries in Europe, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden by Jewish law, because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. Similarly to dogs, eating horses was a taboo for the Castro culture in Northwestern Portugal, and it is still a counter-cultural practice in the region.
Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of Christianity. In 732 CE, Pope Gregory III instructed Saint Boniface to suppress the pagan practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom". The Christianisation of Iceland in 1000 CE was achieved only when the Church promised that Icelanders could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued. Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef, lamb and pork.
In Islam, opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat. Some cite a hadith forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its validity and authority. Wild horses and asses are generally seen as halal while domesticated donkeys are viewed as forbidden. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have eaten the meat, while in North Africa this is rare.
In Canada, horse meat is legal. Most Canadian horse meat is exported to Continental Europe or Japan. In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in California and Illinois. However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The last horse meat slaughterhouse in USA was closed in 2007. Nevertheless, discarded leisure, sport and work horses are collected and sold at auctions. They are shipped across the country by transporters to the borders of Canada in the north and Mexico in the south to be sold to horse meat butchers. The issue of horse consumption in the UK and Ireland was raised in 2013 with regards to the 2013 horse meat contamination scandal.
Horse meat is generally avoided in the Balkans, though not Slovenia, as horse is considered to be a noble animal or because eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine. However, it has a small niche market in Serbia.
Humans
Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most heavily proscribed. In recent times, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger – never as a common part of their diet, but it is thought that the practice was once widespread among all humans.
The Fore people of Papua New Guinea engaged in funerary cannibalism until the Australian government prohibited the practice in the late 1950s. Cannibalism was how the prion disease kuru spread, though the link was unproven until 1967.
The consumption of human flesh is forbidden by Hinduism, Islam,
Primates (apes, monkeys, etc.)
Monkey brains is a dish consisting of, at least partially, the brain of some species of monkey or ape. In Western popular culture, its consumption is repeatedly portrayed and debated, often in the context of portraying exotic cultures as exceptionally cruel, callous, and/or strange.
Monkeys are revered animals in India, largely because of the monkey god Hanuman. Many Hindus are vegetarian and do not eat any kind of meat, including monkeys. Meat eating Indians also do not kill or eat monkeys. Killing and eating monkeys (or other animals which are considered wild) is both taboo and illegal in India.
In Malagasy culture, lemurs are considered to have souls (ambiroa) which can get revenge if mocked while alive or if killed in a cruel fashion. Because of this, lemurs, like many other elements of daily life, have been a source of taboos, known locally as fady, which can be based around stories with four basic principles. A village or region may believe that a certain type of lemur may be the ancestor of the clan. They may also believe that a lemur's spirit may get revenge. Alternatively, the animal may appear as a benefactor. Lemurs are also thought to impart their qualities, good or bad, onto human babies. In general, fady extend beyond a sense of the forbidden, but can include events that bring bad luck.
Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's Cavally River included chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana), putty-nosed monkey (C. nictitans), lesser spot-nosed monkey (C. petaurista), Campbell's mona monkey (C. campbelli), sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys), king colobus (Colobus polykomos), olive colobus (Procolobus verus), western red colobus (P. badius).
Between 1983 and 2002, the Gabon populations of western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for logging purposes.
In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked bonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin. Some people consider consumption of primates to be close to human cannibalism due to monkeys and apes being close relatives of human beings.
Kangaroo
Kangaroo meat has long been a significant part of some indigenous Australian diets. Kangaroo meat was legalised for human consumption in South Australia in 1980, though in other states it could only be sold as pet food until 1993. Kangaroos, along with most other native Australian animals, are protected under Australian law on a state and federal level, but licences to kill kangaroos can be acquired for hunting or culling purposes. Though kangaroo meat was once unpopular with modern Australians, it has become a lot more popular in recent years due to its reputation as a low-fat and low-emission meat, and can be found in most supermarkets.
Kangaroo meat is illegal in California. The ban was first imposed in 1971; a moratorium was put in place in 2007, allowing the importation of the meat, but the ban was re-implemented in 2015. Kangaroo meat is also not considered biblically kosher by Jews or Adventists. However, it is considered halal according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.
Living animals
Islamic law, Judaic law (including Noahide Law), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal (Genesis 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, Sanhedrin 59a). However, in the case of a ben pekuah where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply. Eating oysters raw, ikizukuri, and other similar cases would be considered a violation of this in Jewish law.
Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include eating live seafood, such as "raw oyster on the half shell" and ikizukuri (live fish). Sashimi using live animals has been banned in some countries.
Offal
Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as sweetbreads and kidney. Offal is a traditional part of many European and Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the steak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom or callos a la madrileña in Spain. Haggis has been Scotland's national dish since the time of Robert Burns. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called "''buchada''", made with goats' stomach.
Except for heart, tongue (beef), liver (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural sausage casings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example, tripe as menudo or mondongo among Latinos and Hispanos, chitterlings in the Southern United States, scrapple on the Eastern Seaboard, fried-brain sandwiches in the Midwest, and beef testicles called Rocky Mountain oysters or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served as huevos de toro or 'bull's eggs'.
In some regions, such as the European Union, brains and other organs which can transmit bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the food chain as specified risk materials.
Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient cheesemaking techniques utilize stomachs (which contain rennet) for turning milk into cheese, a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that the process by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.
Poppy seed
Poppy seeds are used as condiments in many cultures, but the trace amounts of morphine and codeine present in the seeds can lead to a false positive when administering a drug test. In Singapore, poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by the Central Narcotics Bureau (CNB).
Pigs/pork
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data reports pork as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden by Islam, Judaism and certain Christian denominations, such as Seventh-day Adventists. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g. Qur'an 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115, and Deuteronomy 14:8. Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: the Phoenicians, Egyptians and Babylonians. In some instances, the taboo extended beyond eating pork, and it was also taboo to touch or even look at pigs.
The original reason for this taboo is debated. Maimonides seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eat feces. In the 19th century, some people attributed the pig taboo in the Middle East to the danger of the parasite trichina, but this explanation is now out of favour. James George Frazer suggested that, in ancient Israel, Egypt and Syria, the pig was originally a sacred animal, which for that reason could not be eaten or touched; the taboo survived to a time when the pig was no longer regarded as sacred, and was therefore explained by reference to its being unclean.
More recently, Marvin Harris posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates because they require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice. Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. Mary Douglas has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.
While pork alternatives (for example, by Impossible Foods) do not contain actual pork meat, some conservative religious groups, such as Islam, regard it as forbidden, similar to its meat-based counterpart as it is the said haram or non-kosher product the pork alternative is trying to mimic and present. Lab-grown pork might also be considered haram or non-kosher.
Rabbit
The book of Leviticus in the Bible classifies the rabbit as unclean because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants). The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam, and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient in molokheyya), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence of Twelver Shia Islam.
Rats and mice
In most Western cultures, rats and mice are considered either unclean vermin or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of plague.
In Ghana, Thryonomys swinderianus locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) "Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative of porcupines and guinea pigs that inhabit Africa, south of the Saharan Desert. In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases of monkeypox, an illness never before been seen in the Western Hemisphere.
Consumption of any sort of rodent, or material originating from rodents, is forbidden by Judaism and Islam.
Reptiles
Judaism and Islam strictly forbid the consumption of reptiles, such as crocodiles and snakes. In other cultures, foods such as alligator are treasured as delicacies, and the animals are raised commercially.
Vegetables, fruits and spices
In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, consumption of vegetables of the onion genus are restricted. Adherents believe that these excite damaging passions. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or Hindu holy months of Shrawan, Puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.
Kashmiri Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as black pepper and chili pepper, believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.
Jains not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also do not eat root vegetables (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe in ahimsa. In the hierarchy of living entities, overwintering plants such as onions are ranked higher than food crops such as wheat and rice. The ability of onions to observe the changing of the seasons and bloom in spring is believed to be an additional 'sense' absent in lower plants. The amount of bad karma generated depends on the number of senses the creature possesses and so it is thought prudent to avoid eating onions. This also means that in some North Indian traditions, effectively all overwintering plants are considered taboo.
Chinese Buddhist cuisine traditionally prohibits garlic, Allium chinense, asafoetida, shallot, and Allium victorialis (victory onion or mountain leek).
In Yazidism, the eating of lettuce and butter beans is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of Mosul in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.
The followers of Pythagoras were vegetarians, and "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". However, their creed prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the flatulence they cause, perhaps as protection from potential favism, but most likely for magico-religious reasons. One legend about Pythagoras' death states that he was killed after he chose not to run through a fava bean field to escape his enemies.
Vegetables like broccoli and cauliflower, while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as blackberries and raspberries are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit.
The common Egyptian dish mulukhiyah, a soup whose primary ingredient is jute leaves (which did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis. While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat mulukhiyah of any kind to this day.
Whales
Sunni Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales that have died of natural causes as there is a famous Sunni hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such. Whale meat is forbidden (haram) in Shia Islam as whales do not have scales. In much of the world, whale meat is not eaten due to the endangerment of whales but it is not traditionally forbidden. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to import whale meat into the country.
Prohibited drinks
Alcoholic beverages
Some religions – including Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, Rastafari movement, Baháʼí Faith, and various branches of Christianity such as the Baptists, the Pentecostals, Methodists, the Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists and the Iglesia ni Cristo – forbid or discourage the consumption of alcoholic beverages.
The Hebrew Bible describes a Nazirite vow (Numbers 6:1-21) that includes abstinence from alcohol, specifically wine and probably barley beer (according to the Septuagint translation and the Bauer lexicon: σικερα, from the Akkadian shikaru, for barley beer). The New JPS translation is: "wine and any other intoxicant". Other versions such as the NIV prohibit both alcohol and all alcohol derived products such as wine vinegar. There is no general taboo against alcohol in Judaism.
There are also cultural taboos against the consumption of alcohol, reflected for example in the Teetotalism or Temperance movement. There is also something of a cultural taboo in several countries, against the consumption of alcohol by women during pregnancy for health reasons, as seen, for example, in the Maternity Protection Convention, 2000 by ILO.
Absinthe
Absinthe was made illegal in the United States in 1912 because of its high alcohol percentage. Absinthe was legalized again in 2007. It was rumored to have been a cause for hallucinations, giving it the nickname “The Green Fairy.”
Blood
Some religions prohibit drinking or eating blood or food made from blood. In Islam the consumption of blood is prohibited (Haram). Halal animals should be properly slaughtered to drain out the blood. Unlike in other traditions, this is not because blood is revered or holy, but simply because blood is considered ritually unclean or Najis, with certain narratives prescribing ablutions (in the case of no availability of water) if contact is made with it. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) is salted to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus, that since "the life of the animal is in the blood" or "blood was reserved for the forgiveness of sins and thus reserved for God", no person may eat (or drink) the blood. Iglesia ni Cristo and Jehovah's Witnesses prohibit eating or drinking any blood.
According to the Bible, blood is only to be used for special or sacred purposes in connection with worship (Exodus chapters 12, 24, 29, Matthew 26:29 and Hebrews). In the first century, Christians, both former Jews (the Jewish Christians), and new Gentile converts, were in dispute as to which particular features of Mosaic law were to be retained and upheld by them. The Apostolic Decree suggested that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood:
Coffee and tea
"Hot drinks" are taboo for members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The term is misleading as the ban is applied exclusively to coffee and tea (i.e. not hot cocoa or herbal teas). The Word of Wisdom, a code of health used by church members, outlines prohibited and allowed substances. While not banned, some Mormons avoid caffeine in general, including cola drinks. Members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also generally avoid caffeinated drinks.
There is a widely reported story, possibly apocryphal, that around the year 1600, some Catholics urged Pope Clement VIII to ban coffee, calling it "devil's beverage". After tasting the beverage, the pope is said to have remarked that the drink was "so delicious that it would be a sin to let only misbelievers drink it." (See the History of coffee.)
Human breast milk
While human breast milk is universally accepted for infant nutrition, some cultures see the consumption of breast milk after weaning as taboo.
禁止されている組み合わせ
カシュルートとは、ユダヤ教の食物規制であり、許可されるすべての食品を3つのカテゴリに分類する。すなわち、肉製品、乳製品、そしてどちらでもないとされるその他の食品（野菜製品だけでなく、魚や卵も含む）である。食事や料理には、肉製品と乳製品の両方を含めることはできない。同様に、肉と魚を一緒に調理することはできず、魚と牛乳も一緒に調理することはできないが、他の乳製品と魚を調理することは許可されている。
In Italian cuisine, there is a widespread taboo on serving cheese with seafood, although there are several exceptions.
禁止された起源
トーラーにはビシュール・アクムという律法がある。これは、ビシュール・アクムの地位を持つ食品が、非ユダヤ人によって完全に調理されたものであることを意味し、使用された材料自体はコーシャであり、禁止された組み合わせが避けられていたとしても、その食品は禁止される。
関連項目
 | この記事は、クリエイティブ・コモンズ・表示・継承ライセンス3.0のもとで公表されたウィキペディアの項目Food and drink prohibitions(20 July 2025, at 14:59編集記事参照)を翻訳して二次利用しています。 |