Spice: Difference between revisions

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===Early history===

The spice trade developed throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.

The spice trade developed throughout the [[Wikipedia:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[Wikipedia:East Asia|East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[:en:Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[Wikipedia:China|China]], [[Wikipedia:Korea|Korea]], and [[Wikipedia:India|India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.

[[Clove]]s were used in [[Mesopotamia]] by 1700 BCE. The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Banda Islands]] in [[Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.

[[Clove]]s were used in [[Wikipedia:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] by 1700 BCE. The ancient Indian [[Wikipedia:Indian epic poetry|epic|Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Wikipedia:Ramayana|Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[:en:Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Wikipedia:Pliny the Elder|Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Wikipedia:Ebers Papyrus|Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Wikipedia:Banda Islands|Banda Islands]] in [[Wikipedia:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.

Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[port city]] of [[Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.

Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Wikipedia:Arab|Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[Wikipedia:port city|port city]] of [[Wikipedia:Alexandria|Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[Wikipedia:monsoon|monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.

Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Old Testament]]. In [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.

Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Wikipedia:Old Testament|Old Testament]]. In [[:en:Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[:en:Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[:en:Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Wikipedia:manna|manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Wikipedia:Song of Solomon|Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.

===Middle Ages===

[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]

[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[Wikipedia:The Travels of Marco Polo|The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]

Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]],~~<sup>[[Spice#cite note-5|[5]]]</sup>~~ the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food,~~<sup>[[Spice#cite note-6|[6]]]</sup>~~ a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[wine]], and was not alone among [[European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.

Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Wikipedia:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[Wikipedia:humorism|humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food, a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[Wikipedia:pandemic|pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[Wikipedia:King of Aragon|King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[Wikipedia:wine|wine]], and was not alone among [[:en:European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.

Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].

Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Wikipedia:Republic of Venice|Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[Wikipedia:maritime republics|maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Wikipedia:Late Middle Ages|Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[:en:Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].

===Early modern period===

[[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[New World]]. He described to [[investor]]s new spices available there.

[[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] and [[Wikipedia:Portugal|Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[:en:Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Wikipedia:Vasco da Gama|Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[Wikipedia:India|India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Wikipedia:Venice|Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Wikipedia:Christopher Columbus|Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[Wikipedia:New World|New World]]. He described to [[Wikipedia:investor|investor]]s new spices available there.

Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Ormuz]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[viceroy]] of the [[Indies]], he took [[Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Malacca]] on the [[Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[Thailand|Siam]], [[China]], and the [[Maluku Islands]].

Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[:en:Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Wikipedia:Dubrovnik|Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Wikipedia:Afonso de Albuquerque|Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Wikipedia:Socotra|Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Wikipedia:Red Sea|Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Wikipedia:Ormuz|Ormuz]] in the [[Wikipedia:Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[Wikipedia:viceroy|viceroy]] of the [[Wikipedia:Indies|Indies]], he took [[Wikipedia:Goa|Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Wikipedia:Malacca|Malacca]] on the [[Wikipedia:Malay peninsula|Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[:en:Thailand|Siam]], [[Wikipedia:China|China]], and the [[Wikipedia:Maluku Islands|Maluku Islands]].

@@ Line 35: / Line 35: @@
 ===Early history=== <!--T:8-->
-The spice trade developed throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000&nbsp;BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.
+The spice trade developed throughout the [[Wikipedia:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[Wikipedia:East Asia|East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[:en:Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000&nbsp;BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[Wikipedia:China|China]], [[Wikipedia:Korea|Korea]], and [[Wikipedia:India|India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.
 <!--T:9-->
-[[Clove]]s were used in [[Mesopotamia]] by 1700&nbsp;BCE. The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Banda Islands]] in [[Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.
+[[Clove]]s were used in [[Wikipedia:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] by 1700&nbsp;BCE. The ancient Indian [[Wikipedia:Indian epic poetry|epic|Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Wikipedia:Ramayana|Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[:en:Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Wikipedia:Pliny the Elder|Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Wikipedia:Ebers Papyrus|Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Wikipedia:Banda Islands|Banda Islands]] in [[Wikipedia:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.
 <!--T:10-->
-Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[port city]] of [[Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.
+Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Wikipedia:Arab|Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[Wikipedia:port city|port city]] of [[Wikipedia:Alexandria|Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[Wikipedia:monsoon|monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.
 <!--T:11-->
-Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Old Testament]]. In [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.
+Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Wikipedia:Old Testament|Old Testament]]. In [[:en:Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[:en:Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[:en:Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Wikipedia:manna|manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Wikipedia:Song of Solomon|Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.
 ===Middle Ages=== <!--T:12-->
-[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]
+[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[Wikipedia:The Travels of Marco Polo|The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]
-Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]],<sup>[[Spice#cite note-5|[5]]]</sup> the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food,<sup>[[Spice#cite note-6|[6]]]</sup> a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[wine]], and was not alone among [[European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.
+Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Wikipedia:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[Wikipedia:humorism|humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food, a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[Wikipedia:pandemic|pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[Wikipedia:King of Aragon|King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[Wikipedia:wine|wine]], and was not alone among [[:en:European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.
 <!--T:13-->
-Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000&nbsp;tons of pepper and 1,000&nbsp;tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].
+Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Wikipedia:Republic of Venice|Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[Wikipedia:maritime republics|maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000&nbsp;tons of pepper and 1,000&nbsp;tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Wikipedia:Late Middle Ages|Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[:en:Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].
 ===Early modern period=== <!--T:14-->
-[[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[New World]]. He described to [[investor]]s new spices available there.
+[[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] and [[Wikipedia:Portugal|Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[:en:Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Wikipedia:Vasco da Gama|Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[Wikipedia:India|India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Wikipedia:Venice|Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Wikipedia:Christopher Columbus|Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[Wikipedia:New World|New World]]. He described to [[Wikipedia:investor|investor]]s new spices available there.
 <!--T:15-->
-Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Ormuz]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[viceroy]] of the [[Indies]], he took [[Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Malacca]] on the [[Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[Thailand|Siam]], [[China]], and the [[Maluku Islands]].
+Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[:en:Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Wikipedia:Dubrovnik|Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Wikipedia:Afonso de Albuquerque|Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Wikipedia:Socotra|Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Wikipedia:Red Sea|Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Wikipedia:Ormuz|Ormuz]] in the [[Wikipedia:Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[Wikipedia:viceroy|viceroy]] of the [[Wikipedia:Indies|Indies]], he took [[Wikipedia:Goa|Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Wikipedia:Malacca|Malacca]] on the [[Wikipedia:Malay peninsula|Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[:en:Thailand|Siam]], [[Wikipedia:China|China]], and the [[Wikipedia:Maluku Islands|Maluku Islands]].
 <!--T:16-->