Coffee in world cultures/ja: Difference between revisions
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ヨーロッパの国々は、世界中に広まった様々な種類のコーヒーを発展させてきた。カフェオレやエスプレッソは様々なコーヒーショップで標準となり、一方でかつてヨーロッパ列強に植民地化された国々で栽培されたコーヒーは、今度はヨーロッパのコーヒー文化に影響を与えている。 | ヨーロッパの国々は、世界中に広まった様々な種類のコーヒーを発展させてきた。カフェオレやエスプレッソは様々なコーヒーショップで標準となり、一方でかつてヨーロッパ列強に植民地化された国々で栽培されたコーヒーは、今度はヨーロッパのコーヒー文化に影響を与えている。 | ||
==== フランス ==== | |||
=== | ''[[café au lait/ja|カフェオレ]]''のようなフランスのコーヒーは世界中に広まり、人気を博している。しかし、その消費方法はフランス独自のものである。コーヒーはカフェやリラックスできる場所で座って飲まれる。また、少量ずつ消費される。コーヒーはフランスの日常生活に深く根付いている。 | ||
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Revision as of 13:27, 3 June 2025
各国は、それぞれの国に特有のニーズを満たすために、コーヒー豆を様々な形で栽培してきた。エネルギーのためであれ、社交のためであれ、伝統のためであれ、コーヒーの栽培は世界の原動力となってきた。コーヒーの近代化と、文化を超えたそのユニークな形態は、大陸を越えた伝統と現代の変化を示すものとなっている。コーヒー文化は、人々がコーヒーを消費する方法、淹れる方法、そしてコーヒーが提供され共有される場所といった形で現れる。これらの要素は、これらの国々の人々の生活と、世界におけるコーヒーの重要性を反映している。
歴史
起源
エチオピアの伝説
世界中で栽培されているコーヒーの起源はエチオピアの森にあり、その起源に関する説もそこにある。地元の伝説によると、ヤギ飼いのカルディが、自分のヤギがコーヒーの実を食べているのを見たという。これによりヤギは極度の活力を得て、夜眠れなくなった。カルディはこの情報を地元の修道士に伝え、修道士たちはコーヒー豆で飲み物を作った。その飲み物を飲んだある修道士は、一晩中起きて祈ることができることに気づいた。この情報が他のエチオピアの修道士に広まると、文明世界全体に広がり始めた。
栽培
コーヒーの普及の多くは、15世紀にスーフィー派の修道士たちによって現在のイエメンで始まったアラブ世界での栽培によるものである。何千人ものムスリムがメッカへ巡礼する中で、コーヒー、あるいは「アラビアのワイン」の楽しみ方と収穫は、他の国々（例えばトルコ、エジプト、シリア）へと広がり、最終的には16世紀を通じて世界の大部分にまで普及した。コーヒーは、家庭で不可欠なものとなるだけでなく、社会生活の主要な一部となった。コーヒーハウスは、現代標準アラビア語でqahwa قَهوةと呼ばれ、リラックスと仲間意識の中心地であるだけでなく、知的議論の場へと発展し、「賢者の学校」となった。
拡大
ヨーロッパ
17世紀までに、ヨーロッパの旅行者たちがコーヒーを大陸にもたらし、人気が高まるにつれて大きな論争が巻き起こった。アラブ世界の「賢者の学校」は大陸中に広がり始め、イングランドでは「ペニー・ユニバーシティ」として知られるようになり、様々な社会階級のニーズを満たすように発展した。さらに、コーヒーは朝食の飲み物としてビールやワインに取って代わり、労働者階級の生産性を向上させた。1615年にローマ教皇クレメンス8世がコーヒーに教皇の赦免を与えると、コーヒーを消費する人口が増加し、最終的にアメリカ大陸への拡大に貢献した。
アメリカ大陸
商人、征服者、宣教師たちは、コロンブス交換の間にコーヒーをアメリカ大陸へ持ち込んだ。北アメリカに関しては、イギリス人が1600年代にニューヨーク、後のニューアムステルダムにコーヒーをもたらした。コーヒーはボストン茶会事件の後、絶頂期を迎え、以来アメリカの主要な飲み物であり続けている。主にカリブ海諸国、そして南米や中米の他の国々で見られるアラビカコーヒーの親種は、1723年に持ち込まれた。アムステルダム市長が1714年にルイ14世にコーヒーの木を贈った後、海軍士官ガブリエル・ド・クリューが種子を盗み出し、マルティニーク島に持ち込んだ。その栽培は最終的に前述の地域全体に広まった。今日の最大のコーヒー生産国であるブラジルには、フランス領ギアナから種子を入手したフランシスコ・デ・メロ・パリェッタがコーヒーをもたらした。
奴隷制度
今日の高収益産業であるコーヒーは、世界中の奴隷制度によって築き上げられた。アラブ世界で生産される量を上回るコーヒーの需要が高まると、オランダ人は17世紀にインドネシア（現在のジャワ島）でコーヒー栽培を始め、最終的にスマトラ島やセレベス島にまで拡大した。アフリカやアメリカ大陸で栽培されたコーヒーの多くも、奴隷によって栽培・収穫されたものである。
世界の文化
コーヒーハウス文化
コーヒーハウス文化はアラブ世界で始まり、最終的に世界の他の地域に広がり、地元の文化と融合していった。アラブの伝統的なコーヒーハウスは、主に男性がゲームやコーヒー、水タバコ（shiishaまたはagriile）を楽しみながら交流する場所である。コーヒーハウスの場所によって、その専門は異なる。北アフリカでは、緑茶がミントとともに提供され、コーヒーはヨーロッパスタイルで提供される。アラビアコーヒー、またはトルココーヒーは、エジプトとレバント諸国で作られている。アラビアコーヒーは、ポットで煮出してデミタスカップに注がれる非常に少量の濃いコーヒーである。特にエジプトでは、コーヒーはmaZbuuTで提供される。これは、砂糖の量が「ちょうど良い」ことを意味し、カップ1杯あたり約小さじ1杯である。しかし、アラビア半島では、アラビアコーヒーはほとんど透明になるまで焙煎されるのが伝統的で、客が飲み終わったことを丁寧に合図するまで、ホストが客のカップにコーヒーを注ぎ足すのが習わしである。
コーヒーハウスはトルコやイランのような他の国でも人気を集めている。例えばトルコは、オスマン帝国の支配下で文化に溶け込んだため、アラブのコーヒーハウスと多くの類似点を共有している。一方、オーストリアの人気のあるウィーンのコーヒーハウスは、ヨーロッパにコーヒーが導入された際に生まれた。これらのコーヒーハウスは、通常集会の場ではないという点で異なり、多くの人々は一人で座ってコーヒーを楽しむために訪れる。世界が近代化するにつれて、他のバリエーションも生まれてきた。北米やフィリピンのコーヒーショップ、マレーシアやシンガポールのkopi tiam、そして様々な国のカフェなどである。
アフリカ
エチオピア
エチオピアのコーヒー、特にコーヒー発祥の地で飲むことは、文化的な体験である。「ブナ」として知られるコーヒーの淹れる工程は、1時間以上かかる。まず、豆を水で洗い、フライパンに入れて火にかける。豆が皮から弾けたら、金属の棒で挽く。挽いた豆は、エチオピアのポットであるjebenaに熱湯とともに入れられ、「チニ」カップで供される。
ヨーロッパ
ヨーロッパの国々は、世界中に広まった様々な種類のコーヒーを発展させてきた。カフェオレやエスプレッソは様々なコーヒーショップで標準となり、一方でかつてヨーロッパ列強に植民地化された国々で栽培されたコーヒーは、今度はヨーロッパのコーヒー文化に影響を与えている。
フランス
カフェオレのようなフランスのコーヒーは世界中に広まり、人気を博している。しかし、その消費方法はフランス独自のものである。コーヒーはカフェやリラックスできる場所で座って飲まれる。また、少量ずつ消費される。コーヒーはフランスの日常生活に深く根付いている。
Germany
In Germany, coffeehouses were first established in North Sea ports, including Wuppertal-Ronsdorf (1673) and Hamburg (1677). Initially, this new beverage was written in the English form coffee, but during the 1700s the Germans gradually adopted the French word café, then slowly changed the spelling to Kaffee, which is the present word. In the 18th century the popularity of coffee gradually spread around the German lands and was taken up by the ruling classes. Coffee was served at the court of the Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, as early as 1675, but Berlin's first public coffee house did not open until 1721.
Composer Johann Sebastian Bach, who was cantor of St. Thomas Church in Leipzig, in 1723–1750, conducted a musical ensemble at the local Café Zimmermann. Sometime in 1732–1735 he composed the secular "Coffee Cantata" Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht (BWV 211), in which a young woman, Lieschen, pleads with her disapproving father to accept her devotion to drinking coffee, then a newfangled fashion. The libretto includes such lines as:
Ei! wie schmeckt der Coffee süße,
Lieblicher als tausend Küsse,
Milder als Muskatenwein.
Coffee, Coffee muss ich haben,
Und wenn jemand mich will laben,
Ach, so schenkt mir Coffee ein!
(Oh! How sweet coffee does taste,
Better than a thousand kisses,
Milder than muscat wine.
Coffee, coffee, I've got to have it,
And if someone wants to perk me up, *
Oh, just give me a cup of coffee!)
Greece
Greece has a surprisingly strong and present coffee culture. There are two main places where coffee is consumed: the kafeteria and the kafenio. The kafeteria, which changes from cafe to bar at night, is mainly for young people under 35 years old to meet and hang out. The kafeneio is where all the old gentlemen used to meet during the popular "schools of the wise". The popular drink of the kafeneio is the ellinikós kafés, which is very similar to Turkish coffee. Its grains are also used for fortune telling after the person finishes drinking. However, frappés have become more popular among the young in kafeterias. The Greek frappé is a mix of Nescafé instant coffee, milk, and sugar frothed up and poured over ice. Recent years have seen the rise in popularity of iced espresso-based coffees, such as espresso freddo (mixed with ice, then poured over ice) and cappuccino freddo (same, but with a layer of cold frothed milk poured on top).
Albania
In 2016, Albania surpassed Spain by becoming the country with the most coffee houses per capita in the world. In fact, there are 654 coffee houses per 100,000 inhabitants in Albania, a country with only 2.5 million inhabitants. This is due to coffee houses closing down in Spain due to the economic crisis, and the fact that as many cafes open as they close in Albania. In addition, the fact that it was one of the easiest ways to make a living after the fall of communism in Albania, together with the country's Ottoman legacy, further reinforce the strong dominance of coffee culture in Albania.
Ireland
Although tea is by far the most popular drink in Ireland, the country has a long history of coffeehouses and its coffee culture has created a drink that has gained worldwide popularity. Irish coffee is a blend of hot coffee, whiskey, and whipped cream. It is usually served after dinner in many Irish establishments.
Italy
As the birthplace of the espresso machine, Italy places a large emphasis on espresso. One may get their espressos suited to their tastes. The most popular coffee-based beverages are:
- Caffè (espresso)
- Caffè macchiato: espresso with a small amount of milk or milk foam
- Cappuccino: espresso with steamed milk foam
- Caffè corretto: espresso with a small amount of an alcoholic beverage, as brandy, sambuca, grappa, or cognac
- Caffellatte (or caffè latte): coffee and milk, usually in a 1:1 proportion
- Latte macchiato: coffee and milk, usually in a 1:2 or 1:3 proportion
- Caffè americano: an espresso with more water
Nordic countries
The well-known coffee break was created in the Nordic region, particularly Sweden and Finland. The fika (pause) tradition calls for two breaks in the morning and afternoon, which are also common during the workday. A social event, fika is usually a coming-together of loved ones, friends, and colleagues over strong coffee and a shared sweet.
Portugal
As other southern European countries, and as a former colonial power, Portugal has a strong coffee culture. Coffeehouses can be found in almost every street of every city, town and village; they are simply called café, Portuguese for 'coffee'. Going to "the café" or going out to "take a coffee" are linguistic expressions, meaning "going out" or a calm encounter with someone. Like the Italian cultural trait, the Portuguese equate a café to an espresso, the default way to have the drink. Café is usually served after meals but also at any other time of the day. In Portuguese homes, coffee machines or coffee pots are a staple utility. Using mainly robusta beans, Portuguese coffee is made very strong, and the usual order is a bica (mainly in the Lisbon area), a very bitter shot of espresso. According to urban legend, this is an acronym for beba isto com açúcar, which translates to 'drink this with sugar'.
Spain
Coffee is consumed during almost every meal, but most often during the almuerzo, a small meal in the middle of the day, and after the cena or dinner. The various staples of the coffee life are:
- Café solo: espresso
- Café cortado: espresso with a small amount of milk
- Café con hielo: iced espresso
- Café americano: café solo with more water
- Café caramel / café bombón: espresso / café solo with condensed milk
- Café doble: double espresso
- Café con leche: coffee with milk
- Carajillo: espresso with a small amount of rum, brandy, or whiskey
- Trifasico (Catalan): Carajillo with milk
- Café sombra / café manchada: a glass of milk with a small amount of coffee
- Café suizo: coffee with whipped cream
United Kingdom
The first coffeehouse in England was opened in Oxford in 1650. The first coffeehouse in London opened in St. Michael's Alley in Cornhill, London. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosée, the servant of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assisted Rosée in setting up the establishment. Coffee was also brought in through the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company in the 17th century. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses throughout England, but there were many disruptions in the progressive movement of coffeehouses between the 1660s and 1670s. During the enlightenment, these early English coffee houses became gathering places used for deep religious and political discussions among the populace, since it was a rare opportunity for sober discussion. This practice became so common, and potentially subversive, that Charles II made an attempt to crush coffee houses in 1670s.
The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, for example, women frequented them in Germany, but it appears to have been commonplace elsewhere in Europe, including in England.
Many in this period believed coffee to have medicinal properties. Renowned and eminent physicians often recommended coffee for medicinal purposes and some prescribed it as a cure for nervous disorders. A 1661 tract entitled "A character of coffee and coffee-houses", written by one "M.P.", lists some of these perceived benefits:
'Tis extolled for drying up the Crudities of the Stomack, and for expelling Fumes out of the Head. Excellent Berry! which can cleanse the English-man's Stomak of Flegm, and expel Giddinesse out of his Head.
This new commodity proved controversial among some subjects, however. For instance, the anonymous 1674 "Women's Petition Against Coffee" declared:
the Excessive Use of that Newfangled, Abominable, Heathenish Liquor called COFFEE ...has...Eunucht our Husbands, and Crippled our more kind Gallants, that they are become as Impotent, as Age.
Yugoslavia
Latin America
Latin America is defined as the territories and countries in the Americas whose main languages are Romantic. A majority of the top-producing coffee countries are in this region, and small, family-owned coffee businesses are still fairly successful. Coffee, especially with the combination of European and indigenous cultures, is extremely popular and unique to each region.
Colombia
Mexico
The most popular form of coffee in Mexico is café de olla. Its name derives from how the coffee is made in a clay pot. Traditionally, piloncillo (unrefined brown sugar) and a cinnamon stick is served with the dark roast coffee made in the pot.
Brazil
Coffee's popularity in Brazil reaches all ages and demographics. One of the most popular drinks of the country is café com leite, which is strong coffee blended with a large amount of milk. This drink is usually served at breakfast to adults and children alike. Another popular Brazilian drink is the cafezinho, made with a strong coffee blend similar to that used in café com leite and a large portion of sugar.
Ecuador
Coffee in Ecuador is often pre-sweetened and made using instant coffee. When one orders a café con leche, they receive a large glass of steamed milk with a small pile of instant coffee. In order to request coffee made in the traditional sense, the correct way to order is to request a café filtrado.
Cuba
Much like in Brazil, coffee is best enjoyed within the family in Cuba. Cuban coffee is usually a coffee ration mixed with a store-bought coffee blend. It is usually made very strong, but sweet. One popular form is the café cubano, or the cafecito, which is an espresso made with sugar. A less sweet version is the cortadito, an espresso with steamed milk.
Peru
Venezuela
North America
Although Canada consumes more coffee than the United States, the populations of both countries enjoy quick, fast, and sugary consumptions of coffee. Both are dominated by coffee chains (e.g. Tim Horton's and Starbucks), yet have different coffee cultures from region to region. For example, the Northeastern U.S. mostly wants fast coffee (e.g. Dunkin Donuts' "Everybody runs on Dunkin" slogan), while places like Portland, Oregon, and San Francisco, California, have developed a more hipster-esque style café-roaster coffee culture.
East Asia
Coffee culture is a relatively new, yet large phenomenon in East Asia. Coffee shops, both Starbucks and smaller businesses, have been growing exponentially in urban areas. The most popular coffee shops are those in which tradition has blended with the new surge of coffee culture.
China
Japan
Japanese coffee culture has been able to blend that of North American coffee culture and Japanese tea culture. While the country does have its fast coffee pickups in the major cities, it is also developing coffee shops similar to those of traditional tea shops. These coffee shops are very trendy, with latte designs and popular Japanese culture; however, they also try to preserve the politeness and methods of old Japanese tea serving.
Korea
Southeast Asia
Kopitiam is a traditional Southeast Asian coffeehouse, and is most popular in Singapore and Malaysia. All generations hang out at kopitiams, while drinking strong green tea and coffee with milk in their traditional forms. While these exist in almost every neighborhood, more modern versions of coffee are spreading across major cities and coffee centers.
While urban areas have adopted the trend of nano- and micro-roasters, coffee growing cities (e.g. Bangkok and Jakarta) have created their own speciality blends that are sold in local speciality coffee shops. Indonesia in particular is one of the world's leading producers of coffee, and one of the product's leading exporters.
Philippines
The Philippines is one of the few countries that produces the four varieties of commercially viable coffee: Arabica, Liberica (Barako), Excelsa and Robusta. Although it is generally said that coffee was introduced to Lipa in 1740 by a Spanish Franciscan friar, there is actually little first-hand evidence to substantiate this. Regardless, by the early 19th century, coffee was being cultivated throughout the Philippines and subsequently exported to America and Australia, followed by Europe with the opening of the Suez Canal. Lipa is commonly attributed as being the center of this cultivation, until roughly 1889, when its industry abruptly failed, likely due to pests, coffee rust (which the Philippines had managed to avoid for longer than the rest of the world), and political factors.
Following this destruction, the Philippines' place in the global coffee supply chain faltered, and would be slow to recover. Throughout the 20th century, various government initiatives were implemented to revive the industry, despite that the Philippines would gradually begin importing more instant coffee than it was exporting. Regardless, a coffee culture has been developing since the 1990s, following the Philippines joining the International Coffee Organization in 1980, and now many specialty coffee shops can be found around the country.Thailand
Thailand (formerly Siam) is one of the top 25 coffee producers in the world as of 2014, but its status as a coffee origin has not been widely known. Thailand traditionally produced mainly Robusta for industrial use, but the country has quickly become an exciting emerging origin for specialty Arabica and fine Robusta coffees. The origin is unique in that it exports very little coffee and most of the consumption remains in the country. There is a booming specialty coffee ecosystem where farmers, roasters, cafes and consumers symbiotically co-exist. It is often seen as an example of a working coffee ecosystem for an origin where coffee produced is sustainable from both economic and environmental perspectives.
Vietnam
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As the French brought coffee to Vietnam, it bears its influence heavily. Similarly, coffee is a large part of both cultures. For example, the Vietnamese take their coffee very seriously, only importing the best roasts and blends. However, when referring to Vietnamese coffee, words like success and discover are used. The most popular coffee drink in Vietnam is cà phê sữa đá, or 'coffee, milk, ice'. This drink is created by mixing strong coffee poured through a water drip and sweetened condensed milk, and then pouring that over ice.
India
Coffee was first smuggled into India in the 16th century and has been grown in the states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu ever since. While tea is the preferred beverage of most Indians, coffee found a foothold among families in southern India. The morning ritual of South Indian filter coffee brewing flourishes in these states, with families procuring small lots of plantation coffee beans ground from neighborhood stores and preparing strong concoctions by pouring hot water over powder lined in a filter. This is mixed with sweetened milk and served in a steel tumbler and dabarah saucer, a set of containers used to cool the beverage. The addition of chicory, a practice encouraged by the Coffee Board during World War II as a means of rationing supply, has now become tradition. The Coffee Board also started the Indian Coffee House chain during the 1940s which became a hub for socio-political movements in major cities through the decades after independence. In the 1990s, the Indian cafe chain Café Coffee Day ushered in an era of social interactions over coffee, introducing a new generation to the beverage with their slogan "A Lot Can Happen Over Coffee". Since then, international chains like Starbucks, along with a slew of artisanal coffee roasters, have further driven consumption in urban India.
Oceania
Australia and New Zealand
Australia and specifically Sydney and Melbourne are known for their coffee culture. Initially a few independent Cafes and brands in the first decades of the 20th century, cafe culture blossomed with the arrival of Greek and Italian immigrants. The flat white, a shot of espresso with a larger ratio of froth and steamed milk, first became popular in Australia in the 1990s the invention of the average is claimed by a Sydneysider. The flat white has since become a classis for Sydneysiders. Melbourne has been called the “coffee capital of the World” thanks to its range of cafes and roasteries.Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea exports virtually all of the coffee that it grows, mainly in the Eastern Highland Province, the Western Highland Province, and Chimbu. Conditions for coffee growing are ideal, with a cool tropical climate in those higher regions. The coffee industry began on plantations, during the colonial era. Most coffee is now produced by small-holders, in areas otherwise dominated by subsistence agriculture. The industry suffers from poor infrastructure and lack of investment. Another threat to the industry is the age of its existing coffee trees, many of which will need replacement to remain productive.
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