Created page with "1242年、アラビア人医師イブン・アル=ナフィスは、肺循環の過程を先人たちよりも詳細かつ正確に記述したが、彼は先人たちと同様に、左心室で形成されると信じていたバイタル・スピリット(プネウマ)の概念を信じていた。イブン・アル=ナフィスは『アヴィセンナのカノン..."
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[[File:Pseudoceros bifurcus - Blue Pseudoceros Flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|この''[[:en:Pseudoceros bifurcus|プセウドケロス・ビフルクス]]'のような扁形動物は、特殊な循環器官を持たない。]]
[[File:Pseudoceros bifurcus - Blue Pseudoceros Flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|この''[[:en:Pseudoceros bifurcus|プセウドケロス・ビフルクス]]'のような扁形動物は、特殊な循環器官を持たない。]]
The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of [[annelid]]s (for example, [[earthworm]]s) and [[cephalopod]]s ([[squid]]s, [[octopus]]es and relatives) always keep their circulating blood enclosed within heart chambers or blood vessels and are classified as ''closed'', just as in humans. Still, the systems of [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s, [[reptile]]s, and [[bird]]s show various stages of the [[evolution]] of the circulatory system. Closed systems permit blood to be directed to the organs that require it.
In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the [[gill]]s and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as ''single cycle'' circulation. The heart of fish is, therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers).
In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always completely separated into two pumps. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart.
In reptiles, the [[ventricular septum]] of the heart is incomplete and the [[pulmonary artery]] is equipped with a [[sphincter muscle]]. This allows a second possible route of blood flow. Instead of blood flowing through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the incomplete ventricular septum into the left ventricle and out through the [[aorta]]. This means the blood flows from the capillaries to the heart and back to the capillaries instead of to the lungs. This process is useful to [[ectothermic]] (cold-blooded) animals in the regulation of their body temperature.
Mammals, birds and [[crocodilia]]ns show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that of mammals. Double circulatory systems permit blood to be repressurized after returning from the lungs, speeding up delivery of oxygen to tissues.
Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including [[flatworm]]s. Their [[body cavity]] has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead, a muscular [[pharynx]] leads to an extensively branched [[digestive system]] that facilitates direct [[diffusion]] of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. [[Oxygen]] can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.
Some animals, such as [[jellyfish]], have more extensive branching from their [[gastrovascular cavity]] (which functions as both a place of digestion and a form of circulation), this branching allows for bodily fluids to reach the outer layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers.
[[File:Charta ex qva figvram parare convenit, illi qvae nervorvm seriem exprimit appendendam, 1543..JPG|thumb|right|Human anatomical chart of blood vessels, with heart, lungs, liver and kidneys included. Other organs are numbered and arranged around it. Before cutting out the figures on this page, [[Vesalius]] suggests that readers glue the page onto parchment and gives instructions on how to assemble the pieces and paste the multilayered figure onto a base "muscle man" illustration. "Epitome", fol.14a. HMD Collection, WZ 240 V575dhZ 1543.]]
The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the [[Ebers Papyrus]] (16th century BCE), an [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|ancient Egyptian medical papyrus]] containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. In the [[papyrus]], it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.
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==歴史==
In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to the [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] physician [[Sushruta]] in [[History of India|ancient India]]. He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007). The [[Heart valve|valves of the heart]] were discovered by a physician of the [[Hippocrates|Hippocratean]] school around the 4th century BCE. However, their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for the transport of air.
{{Anchor|History}}
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[[File:Charta ex qva figvram parare convenit, illi qvae nervorvm seriem exprimit appendendam, 1543..JPG|thumb|right|心臓、肺、肝臓、腎臓を含む血管の人体解剖図。心臓、肺、肝臓、腎臓が含まれ、他の臓器には番号が振られ、その周りに配置されている。このページの図を切り取る前に、[[:en:Vesalius|ヴェサリウス]]は読者にこのページを羊皮紙に糊付けするよう勧めており、パーツを組み立て、重層的な図を下地の「筋肉マン」の図に貼り付ける方法を指示している。「Epitome", fol.14a. HMD Collection, WZ 240 V575dhZ 1543.]]
紀元前6世紀、[[:en:History of India|古代インド]]の[[Ayurveda/ja|アーユルヴェーダ]]医師[[:en:Sushruta|スシュルタ]]は、体内の体液循環に関する知識を知っていた。彼はまた、Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)によって「チャンネル」と表現された動脈の知識も持っていたようだ。[[Heart valve/ja|心臓の弁]]は、紀元前4世紀頃に[[:en:Hippocrates|ヒポクラテス]]学派の医師によって発見された。しかし、当時はその機能が正しく理解されていなかった。死後、血液は静脈に溜まるため、動脈は空っぽに見える。古代の解剖学者たちは、動脈は空気で満たされており、空気を運ぶためのものだと考えていた。
The [[Ancient Greek Medicine|Greek physician]], [[Herophilus]], distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the [[pulse]] was a property of arteries themselves. Greek anatomist [[Erasistratus]] observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that enters between veins and arteries by very small vessels. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood.
In 2nd-century AD [[Rome]], the [[Ancient Greek Medicine|Greek]] physician [[Galen]] knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.
Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.
In 1025, ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' by the [[Ancient Iranian Medicine|Persian physician]], [[Avicenna]], "erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles." Despite this, Avicenna "correctly wrote on the [[cardiac cycle]]s and valvular function", and "had a vision of blood circulation" in his ''Treatise on Pulse''. While also refining Galen's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: "Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction."
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1025年、[[Ancient Iranian Medicine/ja|ペルシアの医師]] [[:en:Avicenna|アヴィセンナ]]による『[[:en:The Canon of physician|医学大全]]』は、「心室中隔に穴があり、その穴を通って血液が心室間を移動するというギリシャの概念を誤って受け入れた」と述べている。にもかかわらず、アヴィセンナは「心臓の周期と弁機能について正しく書き」、『脈拍論』では「血液循環のビジョンを持っていた」。アヴィセンナは、ガレノスの誤った脈拍理論を改良する一方で、脈拍について初めて正しい説明を行った: "脈拍の各拍動は2回の運動と2回の休止からなる。このように、膨張:休止:収縮:休止である。脈拍は心臓と動脈の運動であり、膨張と収縮が交互に繰り返される。"
In 1242, the [[Medicine in medieval Islam|Arabian physician]], [[Ibn al-Nafis]] described the process of [[pulmonary circulation]] in greater, more accurate detail than his predecessors, though he believed, as they did, in the notion of vital spirit ([[pneuma]]), which he believed was formed in the left ventricle. Ibn al-Nafis stated in his ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'':
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1242年、[[Medicine in medieval Islam/ja|アラビア人医師]] [[:en:Ibn al-Nafis|イブン・アル=ナフィス]]は、[[pulmonary circulation/ja|肺循環]]の過程を先人たちよりも詳細かつ正確に記述したが、彼は先人たちと同様に、左心室で形成されると信じていたバイタル・スピリット([[pneuma/ja|プネウマ]])の概念を信じていた。イブン・アル=ナフィスは『アヴィセンナのカノン』における解剖学の解説の中で次のように述べている:
<blockquote>...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa ([[pulmonary vein]]) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit...</blockquote>
In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the [[capillary]] circulation. He stated that "there must be small communications or pores (''manafidh'' in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery and vein," a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years. Ibn al-Nafis' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body.
[[Michael Servetus]] was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the "Manuscript of Paris" (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this description, but in a theological treatise, ''Christianismi Restitutio'', not in a book on medicine. Only three copies of the book survived but these remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.
A better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by [[Vesalius]]'s successor at [[University of Padua|Padua]], [[Realdo Colombo]], in 1559.
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肺循環の発見でよりよく知られているのは、[[:en:Vesalius|ヴェサリウス]]の[[University of Padua|パドヴァ]]での後継者である[[:en:Realdo Colombo|レアルド・コロンボ]]による1559年のことである。
[[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg|thumb|Image of veins from [[William Harvey]]'s ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus]]'', 1628]]
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[[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg|thumb|[[:en:William Harvey|ウィリアム・ハーヴェイ]]の''[[Wikipedia:Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus|Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus]]''(1628年)より静脈の画像。]]
Finally, the English physician [[William Harvey]], a pupil of [[Hieronymus Fabricius]] (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments and published his ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus]]'' in 1628, which "demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not just the lungs. Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al-Nafis' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs." This work, with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world. However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by [[Marcello Malpighi]] in 1661.
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最後に、[[:en:Hieronymus Fabricius|ヒエロニムス・ファブリキウス]]の弟子であったイギリスの医師[[:en:William Harvey|ウィリアム・ハーヴェイ]](彼はその機能を認識することなく静脈の弁について記述していた)が一連の実験を行い、1628年に''[[Wikipedia:Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus|Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus]]''を発表した。最も重要なことは、心臓の拍動が、体の四肢の微細な連結部を通じて血液の連続循環を生み出すということである。これは、イブン・アル=ナフィスが心臓と肺の解剖学的構造と血流を洗練させたのとはまったく異なる概念の飛躍である」。この著作は本質的に正しい説明で、徐々に医薬品界を納得させた。しかし、ハーヴェイは動脈と静脈をつなぐ毛細血管系を特定することはできなかった。これらは後に[[:en:Marcello Malpighi|マルチェロ・マルピーギ]]によって1661年に発見された。
In 1956, [[André Frédéric Cournand]], [[Werner Forssmann]] and [[Dickinson W. Richards]] were awarded the [[List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning [[heart catheterization]] and pathological changes in the circulatory system."
In his Nobel lecture, Forssmann credits Harvey as birthing cardiology with the publication of his book in 1628.
1956年、[[:en:André Frédéric Cournand|アンドレ・フレデリック・クルナン]]、[[:en:Werner Forssmann|ヴェルナー・フォルスマン]]、[[:en:Dickinson W. Richards|ディッキンソン・W・リチャーズ]]は、「[[heart catheterization/ja|心臓カテーテル治療]]と循環系の病理学的変化に関する発見に対して」[[:en:List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine|ノーベル医学賞]]を受賞した。