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[[:en:Electricity generation|発電]]と[[:en:transport|輸送]]は主要な排出源である。最大の単一排出源は[[:en:coal-fired power station|石炭火力発電所]]で、温室効果ガス排出量の20%を占める。[[:en:Deforestation|森林破壊]]やその他の土地利用の変化も二酸化炭素やメタンを排出する。人為的なメタン排出の最大の発生源は[[:en:Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture|農業]]、そして[[:en:gas venting|ガス抜き]]や[[:en:fugitive emissions|化石燃料産業からの漏出]]である。農業における最大のメタン発生源は[[livestock/ja|家畜]]である。[[:en:Agricultural soil science|農地の土壌]]は、一部は[[fertilizer/ja|肥料]]が原因で亜酸化窒素を排出する。現在、[[:en:refrigerant|冷媒]]からのフッ素化ガスの問題には政治的な解決策がある。これは、多くの国が[[:en:Kigali Amendment|キガリ改正]]を批准したためである。
[[:en:Electricity generation|発電]]と[[:en:transport|輸送]]は主要な排出源である。最大の単一排出源は[[:en:coal-fired power station|石炭火力発電所]]で、温室効果ガス排出量の20%を占める。[[:en:Deforestation|森林破壊]]やその他の土地利用の変化も二酸化炭素やメタンを排出する。人為的なメタン排出の最大の発生源は[[:en:Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture|農業]]、そして[[:en:gas venting|ガス抜き]]や[[:en:fugitive emissions|化石燃料産業からの漏出]]である。農業における最大のメタン発生源は[[livestock/ja|家畜]]である。[[:en:Agricultural soil science|農地の土壌]]は、一部は[[fertilizer/ja|肥料]]が原因で亜酸化窒素を排出する。現在、[[:en:refrigerant|冷媒]]からのフッ素化ガスの問題には政治的な解決策がある。これは、多くの国が[[:en:Kigali Amendment|キガリ改正]]を批准したためである。
[[Carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas. [[Methane]] ({{CH4}}) emissions almost have the same short-term impact. [[Nitrous oxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O) and [[fluorinated gases]] (F-Gases) play a minor role. Livestock and manure produce 5.8% of all greenhouse gas emissions. But this depends on the time frame used to calculate the [[global warming potential]] of the respective gas.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are measured in [[Global warming potential#Carbon dioxide equivalent|{{CO2}} equivalents]]. Scientists determine their {{CO2}} equivalents from their [[global warming potential]] (GWP). This depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. There are widely used [[Carbon accounting|greenhouse gas accountin]]g methods that convert volumes of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases to [[Global warming potential#Carbon dioxide equivalent|carbon dioxide equivalents]]. Estimates largely depend on the ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. [[Short-lived climate pollutants]] (SLCPs) persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years. Carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia. Short-lived climate pollutants include [[methane]], [[Hydrofluorocarbon|hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)]], [[tropospheric ozone]] and [[black carbon]].
Scientists increasingly use satellites to locate and measure greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. Earlier, scientists largely relied on or calculated estimates of greenhouse gas emissions and governments' self-reported data.
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===必要な排出削減量===
=== Needed emissions cuts ===
[[File:Greenhouse gas emission scenarios 01.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|2021年11月時点の政策と公約に基づく世界の温室効果ガス排出シナリオ]]
[[File:Greenhouse gas emission scenarios 01.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Global greenhouse gas emission scenarios, based on policies and pledges as of 11/21]]
The annual "Emissions Gap Report" by [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]] stated in 2022 that it was necessary to almost halve emissions. "To get on track for limiting global warming to 1.5°C, global annual GHG emissions must be reduced by 45 per cent compared with emissions projections under policies currently in place in just eight years, and they must continue to decline rapidly after 2030, to avoid exhausting the limited remaining atmospheric [[carbon budget]]." The report commented that the world should focus on broad-based economy-wide transformations and not incremental change.
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2022年、[[:en:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|気候変動に関する政府間パネル]](IPCC)は[[:en:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|第6次評価報告書]]を公表した。同報告書は、地球温暖化を1.5℃(2.7°F)に抑える良い機会を得るためには、温室効果ガス排出量が遅くとも2025年までにピークを迎え、2030年までに43%減少する必要があると警告している。あるいは、国際連合事務総長の[[:en:António Guterres|アントニオ・グテーレス]]の言葉を借りれば、「主要な排出国は、今年から排出量を劇的に削減しなければならない」。
In 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] on climate change. It warned that greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030 to have a good chance of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Or in the words of Secretary-General of the United Nations [[António Guterres]]: "Main emitters must drastically cut emissions starting this year".
A 2023 synthesis by leading climate scientists highlighted ten critical areas in climate science with significant policy implications. These include the near inevitability of temporarily exceeding the 1.5 °C warming limit, the urgent need for a rapid and managed fossil fuel phase-out, challenges in scaling carbon dioxide removal technologies, uncertainties regarding the future contribution of natural carbon sinks, and the interconnected crises of biodiversity loss and climate change. These insights underscore the necessity for immediate and comprehensive mitigation strategies to address the multifaceted challenges of climate change.
[[Climate Action Tracker]] described the situation on 9 November 2021 as follows. The global temperature will rise by 2.7 °C by the end of the century with current policies and by 2.9 °C with nationally adopted policies. The temperature will rise by 2.4 °C if countries only implement the pledges for 2030. The rise would be 2.1 °C with the achievement of the long-term targets too. Full achievement of all announced targets would mean the rise in global temperature will peak at 1.9 °C and go down to 1.8 °C by the year 2100.
There has not been a definitive or detailed evaluation of most goals set for 2020. But it appears the world failed to meet most or all international goals set for that year.
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[[:en:2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference|グラスゴーで開催された2021年国連気候変動会議]]で一つの進展があった。「[[:en:Climate Action Tracker|クライメート・アクション・トラッカー]]」を運営する研究者グループは、温室効果ガス排出量の85%を占める国々を調査した。その結果、EU、英国、チリ、コスタリカの4つの国または政治的実体のみが、2030年の緩和目標を達成するための具体的な手順を記述した詳細な公式政策計画を発表していることが判明した。これらの4つの政治体は、世界の温室効果ガス排出量の6%を担っている。
One update came during the [[2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in Glasgow. The group of researchers running the Climate Action Tracker looked at countries responsible for 85% of greenhouse gas emissions. It found that only four countries or political entities—the EU, UK, Chile and Costa Rica—have published a detailed official policy{{nbhyph}}plan that describes the steps to realise 2030 mitigation targets. These four polities are responsible for 6% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
In 2021 the US and EU launched the Global Methane Pledge to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030. The UK, Argentina, Indonesia, Italy and Mexico joined the initiative. Ghana and Iraq signalled interest in joining. A White House summary of the meeting noted those countries represent six of the top 15 methane emitters globally.
[[File:Global Energy Consumption.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|[[:en:Renewable energy|再生可能エネルギー]]が急速に増加し始めているものの、石炭、石油、および[[natural gas/ja|天然ガス]]が依然として世界の主要なエネルギー源である。]]
[[File:Global Energy Consumption.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Coal, oil, and [[natural gas]] remain the primary global energy sources even as [[Renewable energy|renewables]] have begun rapidly increasing.]]
The [[energy system]] includes the delivery and use of energy. It is the main emitter of carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}). Rapid and deep reductions in the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector are necessary to limit global warming to well below 2 °C. IPCC recommendations include reducing fossil fuel consumption, increasing production from low- and zero carbon energy sources, and increasing use of electricity and alternative energy carriers.
Nearly all scenarios and strategies involve a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures. It will be necessary to accelerate the deployment of [[renewable energy]] six-fold from 0.25% annual growth in 2015 to 1.5% to keep global warming under 2 °C.
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[[File:2010- Power capacity by technology - Dec 2022 International Energy Agency.svg|thumb| 再生可能エネルギー源、特に[[:en:Photovoltaic system|太陽光発電]]と[[:en:Wind power|風力発電]]は、発電容量に占める割合を増加させている。]]
[[File:2010- Power capacity by technology - Dec 2022 International Energy Agency.svg|thumb| Renewable energy sources, especially [[Photovoltaic system|solar photovoltaic]] and [[Wind power|wind]] power, are providing an increasing share of power capacity.]]
The competitiveness of renewable energy is a key to a rapid deployment. In 2020, onshore wind and solar photovoltaics were the cheapest source for new bulk electricity generation in many regions. Renewables may have higher storage costs but non-renewables may have higher clean-up costs. A [[carbon price]] can increase the competitiveness of renewable energy.
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=== 太陽エネルギーと風力エネルギー ===
=== Solar and wind energy ===
{{main/ja|:en:Solar energy|:en:Wind power}}
{{main|Solar energy|Wind power}}
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[[File:Andasol Guadix 4.jpg|thumb|right|150 MWの[[:en:Andasol solar power station|アンダソル太陽熱発電所]]は、[[:en:Renewable energy in Spain|スペイン]]にある商用[[:en:parabolic trough|パラボラトラフ]]型[[:en:solar thermal|太陽熱発電]]所である。アンダソル発電所は、溶融塩タンクを使用して太陽エネルギーを貯蔵し、日没後も7.5時間発電を継続できる。]]
[[File:Andasol Guadix 4.jpg|thumb|right|The 150 MW [[Andasol solar power station]] is a commercial [[parabolic trough]] [[solar thermal]] power plant, located in [[Renewable energy in Spain|Spain]]. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity for 7.5 hours after the sun has stopped shining.]]Wind and sun can provide large amounts of low-carbon energy at competitive production costs. The IPCC estimates that these two mitigation options have the largest potential to reduce emissions before 2030 at low cost.
[[:en:Photovoltaic system|太陽光発電]](PV)は、世界の多くの地域で最も安価な発電方法となっている。太陽光発電の成長はほぼ指数関数的であり、1990年代以降、約3年ごとに倍増している。異なる技術として[[:en:concentrated solar power|集光型太陽熱発電]](CSP)がある。これは、鏡やレンズを用いて広い範囲の太陽光を受光器に集中させる。CSPでは、エネルギーを数時間貯蔵できるため、夕方に供給が可能となる。[[:en:Solar water heating|太陽熱温水器]]は2010年から2019年の間に倍増した。[[File:Shepherds Flat Wind Farm 2011.jpg|thumb |[[:en:Shepherds Flat Wind Farm|シェパーズ・フラット風力発電所]]は、米国[[:en:Oregon|オレゴン州]]にある845[[megawatt|メガワット]](MW)の[[:en:nameplate capacity|定格容量]]を持つ[[:en:wind farm|風力発電所]]である。各タービンは定格2または2.5MWの発電機である。]]
Solar [[photovoltaics]] (PV) has become the cheapest way to generate electricity in many regions of the world. The growth of photovoltaics has been close to exponential. It has about doubled every three years since the 1990s. A different technology is [[concentrated solar power]] (CSP). This uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight on to a receiver. With CSP, the energy can be stored for a few hours. This provides supply in the evening. [[Solar water heating]] doubled between 2010 and 2019.[[File:Shepherds Flat Wind Farm 2011.jpg|thumb |The [[Shepherds Flat Wind Farm]] is an 845 [[megawatt]] (MW) [[nameplate capacity]], wind farm in the US state of [[Oregon]]. Each turbine is a nameplate 2 or 2.5 MW electricity generator.]]
Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the greatest potential for wind power. Offshore [[wind farms]] are more expensive. But offshore units deliver more energy per installed capacity with less fluctuations. In most regions, wind power generation is higher in the winter when PV output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power lead to better-balanced systems.
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb |The 22,500 [[megawatt|MW]] [[nameplate capacity]] [[Three Gorges Dam]] in the [[People's Republic of China]], the largest hydroelectric power station in the world]]Other well-established renewable energy forms include hydropower, bioenergy and geothermal energy.
その他の確立された再生可能エネルギー源には、水力発電、バイオエネルギー、地熱エネルギーがある。
* [[Hydroelectricity]] is electricity generated by [[hydropower]] and plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China. but there are geographical limits and environmental issues. [[Tidal power]] can be used in coastal regions.
* [[Bioenergy]] can provide energy for electricity, heat and transport. Bioenergy, in particular [[biogas]], can provide [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable electricity generation]]. While burning plant-derived [[biomass]] releases {{CO2}}, the plants withdraw {{CO2}} from the atmosphere while they grow. The technologies for producing, transporting and processing a fuel have a significant impact on the lifecycle emissions of the fuel. For example, aviation is starting to use renewable [[biofuel]]s.
* [[Geothermal power]] is electrical power generated from [[geothermal energy]]. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries. [[Geothermal heating]] is in use in 70 countries.
Wind and solar power production does not consistently match demand. To deliver reliable electricity from [[variable renewable energy]] sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems must be flexible. Most electrical grids were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants. The integration of larger amounts of solar and wind energy into the grid requires a change of the energy system; this is necessary to ensure that the supply of electricity matches demand.
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電力システムをより柔軟にするための様々な方法がある。多くの場所で、風力発電と太陽光発電は日ごとおよび季節ごとの規模で補完的である。太陽エネルギー生産が低い夜間や冬には、より多くの風が吹く。異なる地理的地域を[[:en:High-voltage direct current|長距離送電線]]で結ぶことも、変動性を減らすことを可能にする。エネルギー需要を時間的にシフトさせることも可能である。[[:en:Energy demand management|エネルギー需要管理]]と[[:en:smart grid|スマートグリッド]]の利用は、変動性エネルギー生産が最も高い時間帯に合わせることを可能にする。[[:en:Sector coupling|セクターカップリング]]はさらなる柔軟性を提供できる。これには、[[:en:power-to-heat|パワー・トゥ・ヒート]]システムと電気自動車を介して、電力部門を熱およびモビリティ部門に結合させることが含まれる。
There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale. There is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low. Linking different geographical regions through [[High-voltage direct current|long-distance transmission lines]] also makes it possible to reduce variability. It is possible to shift energy demand in time. [[Energy demand management]] and the use of [[smart grids]] make it possible to match the times when variable energy production is highest. [[Sector coupling]] can provide further flexibility. This involves coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via [[power-to-heat]]-systems and electric vehicles.
[[File:1 MW 4 MWh Turner Energy Storage Project in Pullman, WA.jpg|alt=Photo with a set of white containers|thumb|バッテリー貯蔵施設]]
[[File:1 MW 4 MWh Turner Energy Storage Project in Pullman, WA.jpg|alt=Photo with a set of white containers|thumb|Battery storage facility]]
Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy. The most commonly used and available storage method is [[pumped-storage hydroelectricity]]. This requires locations with large differences in height and access to water. They typically store electricity for short periods. Batteries have low [[energy density]]. This and their cost makes them impractical for the large energy storage necessary to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production. Some locations have implemented pumped hydro storage with capacity for multi-month usage.
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=== 原子力 ===
=== Nuclear power ===
{{Further/ja|:en:Sustainable energy#Nuclear power|:en:Nuclear power#Carbon emissions|:en:Nuclear power#Comparison with renewable energy}}
{{Further|Sustainable energy#Nuclear power|Nuclear power#Carbon emissions|Nuclear power#Comparison with renewable energy}}
[[Nuclear power]] could complement renewables for electricity. On the other hand, environmental and security risks could outweigh the benefits. Examples of these environmental risks being the discharge of radioactive water to nearby ecosystems, and the routine release of radioactive gases as well.
The construction of new nuclear reactors currently takes about 10 years. This is much longer than scaling up the deployment of wind and solar. And this timing gives rise to credit risks. However nuclear may be much cheaper in China. China is building a significant number of new power plants. {{As of|2019}} the cost of extending nuclear power plant lifetimes is competitive with other electricity generation technologies if long term costs for nuclear waste disposal are excluded from the calculation. There is also no sufficient financial insurance for nuclear accidents.
{{excerpt|sustainable energy#Fossil fuel switching and mitigation|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}
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==需要削減==
== Demand reduction ==
{{Further/ja|:en:Individual action on climate change}}
{{Further|Individual action on climate change}}
温室効果ガス排出を引き起こす製品やサービスへの需要を減らすことは、気候変動の緩和に役立つ。一つは、[[:en:Individual action on climate change|行動や文化の変化]]によって需要を減らすことである。例えば、食事を変えること、特に食肉消費を減らすという決定は、[[:en:Individual action on climate change|個人が気候変動と闘うための効果的な行動]]である。もう一つは、公共交通機関ネットワークの整備など、インフラを改善することによって需要を減らすことである。最後に、最終用途技術の変化によってエネルギー需要を減らすことができる。例えば、断熱性の良い家は、断熱性の悪い家よりも排出量が少ない。
Reducing demand for products and services that cause greenhouse gas emissions can help in mitigating climate change. One is to reduce demand by [[Individual action on climate change|behavioural and cultural changes]], for example by making changes in diet, especially the decision to reduce meat consumption, an effective [[Individual action on climate change|action individuals take to fight climate change]]. Another is by reducing the demand by improving infrastructure, by building a good public transport network, for example. Lastly, changes in end-use technology can reduce energy demand. For instance a well-insulated house emits less than a poorly-insulated house.
Mitigation options that reduce demand for products or services help people make personal choices to reduce their [[carbon footprint]]. This could be in their choice of transport or food. So these mitigation options have many social aspects that focus on demand reduction; they are therefore ''demand-side'' ''mitigation actions''. For example, people with high socio-economic status often cause more greenhouse gas emissions than those from a lower status. If they reduce their emissions and promote green policies, these people could become low-carbon lifestyle role models. However, there are many psychological variables that influence consumers. These include awareness and perceived risk.
Government policies can support or hinder demand-side mitigation options. For example, public policy can promote [[circular economy]] concepts which would support climate change mitigation. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is linked to the [[sharing economy]].
A 2024 article in Nature Climate Change emphasises the importance of integrating behavioural science into climate change mitigation strategies. The article presents six key recommendations aimed at improving individual and collective actions toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions, including overcoming barriers to research, fostering cross-disciplinary collaborations, and promoting practical behaviour-oriented solutions. These insights suggest that behavioural science plays a crucial role alongside technological and policy measures in addressing climate change.
Global [[primary energy]] demand exceeded 161,000 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2018. This refers to electricity, transport and heating including all losses. In transport and electricity production, fossil fuel usage has a low efficiency of less than 50%. Large amounts of heat in power plants and in motors of vehicles go to waste. The actual amount of energy consumed is significantly lower at 116,000 TWh.
[[:en:Energy conservation|エネルギー保全]]とは、[[:en:Energy consumption|エネルギー消費量]]を減らすために、エネルギーサービスの使用量を減らす努力である。一つの方法は、[[:en:Efficient energy use|エネルギーをより効率的に利用する]]ことである。これは、同じサービスを生産するために、以前よりも少ないエネルギーを使用することを意味する。もう一つの方法は、使用するサービスの量を減らすことである。これの例としては、運転を減らすことなどが挙げられる。エネルギー保全は、持続可能なエネルギーのヒエラルキーの頂点に位置する。消費者が無駄や損失を減らすことで、エネルギーを保全できる。技術のアップグレード、および運用と保守の改善は、全体的な効率改善につながる。
[[Energy conservation]] is the effort made to reduce the [[Energy consumption|consumption of energy]] by using less of an energy service. One way is to [[Efficient energy use|use energy more efficiently]]. This means using less energy than before to produce the same service. Another way is to reduce the amount of service used. An example of this would be to drive less. Energy conservation is at the top of the sustainable [[energy hierarchy]]. When consumers reduce wastage and losses they can conserve energy. The upgrading of technology as well as the improvements to operations and maintenance can result in overall efficiency improvements.
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[[:en:Efficient energy use|エネルギー効率]](または「エネルギー効率化」)とは、製品やサービスを提供するために必要なエネルギー量を削減するプロセスである。[[:en:Energy-efficient building|建物のエネルギー効率]](「グリーンビルディング」)、工業プロセス、および輸送の改善は、2050年までに世界のエネルギー需要を3分の1削減できる可能性がある。これは、温室効果ガスの世界的排出量を削減するのに役立つだろう。例えば、建物を断熱することで、熱的快適性を達成および維持するために必要な暖房および冷房エネルギーの使用量を減らすことができる。エネルギー効率の改善は、一般により効率的な技術や生産プロセスを採用することによって達成される。もう一つの方法は、一般的に受け入れられている方法を用いてエネルギー損失を減らすことである。
[[Efficient energy use]] (or ''energy efficiency'') is the process of reducing the amount of energy required to provide products and services. Improved [[Energy-efficient buildings|energy efficiency in buildings]] ("green buildings"), industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third. This would help reduce global emissions of greenhouse gases. For example, insulating a building allows it to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain thermal comfort. Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process. Another way is to use commonly accepted methods to reduce energy losses.
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===ライフスタイルの変化===
=== Lifestyle changes ===
[[File:2019 Carbon dioxide emissions by income group - Oxfam data.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|この円グラフは、所得グループごとの総排出量と、各所得グループ内での一人当たりの排出量の両方を示している。例えば、所得が最も高い10%の層は炭素排出量の半分を占めており、その構成員は所得規模の下位半分に属する構成員の一人当たり排出量の平均5倍以上を排出している。]]
[[File:2019 Carbon dioxide emissions by income group - Oxfam data.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|This pie chart illustrates both total emissions for each income group, and emissions ''per person'' within each income group. For example, the 10% with the highest incomes are responsible for half of carbon emissions, and its members emit an average of more than five times as much ''per person'' as members of the lowest half of the income scale.]]
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[[:en:Individual action on climate change|気候変動に関する個人の行動]]は、多くの分野における個人的な選択を含みうる。これらには、食事、旅行、家庭でのエネルギー使用、商品やサービスの消費、家族構成などが含まれる。自身の[[:en:carbon footprint|炭素排出量]]を削減したいと願う人々は、[[:en:frequent flying|頻繁な飛行機利用]]やガソリン車の回避、主に[[plant-based diet/ja|植物ベースの食事]]を摂ること、子どもの数を減らすこと、衣類や電気製品を長く使うことなど、影響の大きい行動をとることができる。これらのアプローチは、高消費型のライフスタイルを持つ高所得国の国民にとってより現実的である。当然ながら、電気自動車のような選択肢が利用できないため、低所得層の人々がこれらの変化を起こすことはより困難である。気候変動の原因としては、人口増加よりも過剰消費の方がより大きな責任がある。高消費型のライフスタイルは環境への影響が大きく、最も裕福な10%の人々がライフスタイルに起因する総排出量の約半分を排出している。
[[Individual action on climate change]] can include personal choices in many areas. These include diet, travel, household energy use, consumption of goods and services, and family size. People who wish to reduce their [[carbon footprint]] can take high-impact actions such as avoiding [[frequent flying]] and petrol-fuelled cars, eating mainly a [[plant-based diet]], having fewer children, using clothes and electrical products for longer, These approaches are more practical for people in high-income countries with high-consumption lifestyles. Naturally, it is more difficult for those with lower income statuses to make these changes. This is because choices like electric-powered cars may not be available. Excessive consumption is more to blame for climate change than population increase. High-consumption lifestyles have a greater environmental impact, with the richest 10% of people emitting about half the total lifestyle emissions.
Some scientists say that avoiding meat and dairy foods is the single biggest way an individual can reduce their environmental impact. The widespread adoption of a vegetarian diet could cut food-related greenhouse gas emissions by 63% by 2050. China introduced new dietary guidelines in 2016 which aim to cut meat consumption by 50% and thereby reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 1{{nbsp}}Gt per year by 2030. Overall, food accounts for the largest share of consumption-based greenhouse gas emissions. It is responsible for nearly 20% of the global carbon footprint. Almost 15% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have been attributed to the livestock sector.
A shift towards [[plant-based diets]] would help to mitigate climate change. In particular, reducing meat consumption would help to reduce methane emissions. If high-income nations switched to a plant-based diet, vast amounts of land used for animal agriculture could be allowed to [[Restoration ecology|return to their natural state]]. This in turn has the potential to sequester 100 billion tonnes of {{CO2}} by the end of the century. A comprehensive analysis found that plant based diets reduce emissions, water pollution and land use significantly (by 75%), while reducing the destruction of wildlife and usage of water.
[[File:GHG by diet groups.svg|thumb|right|Environmental footprint of 55,504 UK citizens by diet group (''Nat Food'' 4, 565–574, 2023).]]
[[File:GHG by diet groups.svg|thumb|right|食事グループ別(Nat Food 4, 565–574, 2023)英国市民55,504人の環境フットプリント]]
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=== 家族の規模 ===
=== Family size ===
{{Further/ja|:en:Individual action on climate change#Family size}}[[File:World population (UN).svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|1950年以降、世界人口は3倍になった。]]
{{Further|Individual action on climate change#Family size}}[[File:World population (UN).svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Since 1950, world population has tripled.]]<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Projections of population growth|Population growth]] has resulted in higher greenhouse gas emissions in most regions, particularly Africa. However, economic growth has a bigger effect than population growth. Rising incomes, changes in consumption and dietary patterns, as well as population growth, cause pressure on land and other natural resources. This leads to more greenhouse gas emissions and fewer carbon sinks. Some scholars have argued that humane policies to slow population growth should be part of a broad climate response together with policies that end fossil fuel use and encourage sustainable consumption. Advances in female education and [[Sexual and reproductive health|reproductive health]], especially voluntary [[family planning]], can contribute to reducing population growth.
[[:en:Projections of population growth|人口増加]]は、ほとんどの地域、特にアフリカにおいて温室効果ガス排出量の増加をもたらしている。しかし、経済成長は人口増加よりも大きな影響を与える。所得の増加、消費と食事パターンの変化、そして人口増加は、土地やその他の天然資源に圧力をかける。これにより、温室効果ガス排出量が増加し、炭素吸収源が減少する。一部の学者は、人口増加を抑制するための人道主義的な政策は、化石燃料の使用を終わらせ、持続可能な消費を奨励する政策とともに、広範な気候変動対策の一部であるべきだと主張している。女性の教育と[[:en:Sexual and reproductive health|性と生殖に関する健康]]、特に家族計画の進歩は、人口増加の削減に貢献できる。
[[File:Carbon Dioxide Partitioning.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|About 58% of {{CO2}} emissions have been absorbed by [[carbon sinks]], including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake ([[Global Carbon Project#Global Carbon Budget|2020 Global Carbon Budget]]).]]
An important mitigation measure is "preserving and enhancing [[carbon sink]]s". This refers to the management of Earth's natural [[carbon sink]]s in a way that preserves or increases their capability to remove CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere and to store it durably. Scientists call this process also [[carbon sequestration]]. In the context of climate change mitigation, the IPCC defines a ''sink'' as "Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere". Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the [[ocean]].
To enhance the ability of [[ecosystem]]s to sequester carbon, changes are necessary in agriculture and forestry. Examples are preventing [[deforestation]] and restoring natural ecosystems by [[reforestation]]. Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of [[Carbon dioxide removal|carbon dioxide removal methods]] over the 21st century. There are concerns about over-reliance on these technologies, and their environmental impacts. But ecosystem restoration and reduced conversion are among the mitigation tools that can yield the most emissions reductions before 2030.
Land-based mitigation options are referred to as "AFOLU mitigation options" in the 2022 IPCC report on mitigation. The abbreviation stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use" The report described the economic mitigation potential from relevant activities around forests and ecosystems as follows: "the conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems (coastal wetlands, [[peatlands]], savannas and grasslands)". A high mitigation potential is found for reducing deforestation in tropical regions. The economic potential of these activities has been estimated to be 4.2 to 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO<sub>2</sub> -eq) per year.
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=== 森林 ===
=== Forests ===
{{Further/ja|:en:Carbon sequestration#Forestry|:en:Deforestation and climate change|:en:Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation}}
{{Further|Carbon sequestration#Forestry|Deforestation and climate change|Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation}}
The [[Stern Review]] on the economics of climate change stated in 2007 that curbing [[deforestation]] was a highly cost-effective way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. About 95% of deforestation occurs in the tropics, where clearing of land for agriculture is one of the main causes. One forest conservation strategy is to transfer rights over land from public ownership to its indigenous inhabitants. Land concessions often go to powerful extractive companies. Conservation strategies that exclude and even evict humans, called [[fortress conservation]], often lead to more exploitation of the land. This is because the native inhabitants turn to work for extractive companies to survive.
[[Proforestation]] is promoting forests to capture their full ecological potential. This is a mitigation strategy as [[secondary forest]]s that have regrown in abandoned farmland are found to have less biodiversity than the original [[old-growth forest]]s. Original forests store 60% more carbon than these new forests. Strategies include [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|rewilding]] and establishing [[wildlife corridor]]s.
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====植林、再植林および砂漠化の防止====
====Afforestation, reforestation and preventing desertification====
[[:en:Afforestation|植林]]とは、以前に樹木がなかった場所に木を植えることである。最大4000万ヘクタール(Mha)(6300 x 6300 km)をカバーする新規植林のシナリオは、2100年までに900ギガトン以上の炭素(2300ギガトン{{CO2}})の累積炭素貯蔵を示唆している。しかし、これらの植林は、その規模があまりに大きいため、ほとんどの自然生態系を排除したり、食料生産を減少させたりすることになるため、積極的な排出削減の実行可能な代替策ではない。[[:en:Trillion Tree Campaign|一兆本の木キャンペーン]]はその一例である。しかし、生物多様性の保全も重要であり、例えば、すべての草地が森林への転換に適しているわけではない。草地は、[[:en:carbon sink|炭素吸収源]]から[[:en:carbon source|炭素排出源]]にさえ変わりうる。[[File:Coppice stool.jpg|thumb|right|長年森林伐採されてきた地域でも、既存の根や切り株を再生させる方が、植林よりも効率的であると主張されている。地元住民による樹木の法的所有権の欠如が、再成長を妨げる最大の障害である。]]
[[Afforestation]] is the establishment of trees where there was previously no tree cover. Scenarios for new plantations covering up to 4000 million hectares (Mha) (6300 x 6300 km) suggest cumulative carbon storage of more than 900 GtC (2300 Gt{{CO2}}) until 2100. But they are not a viable alternative to aggressive emissions reduction. This is because the plantations would need to be so large they would eliminate most natural ecosystems or reduce food production. One example is the [[Trillion Tree Campaign]]. However, preserving [[biodiversity]] is also important and for example not all [[grassland]]s are suitable for conversion into forests. Grasslands can even turn from [[carbon sink]]s to [[carbon source]]s. [[File:Coppice stool.jpg|thumb|right|Helping existing roots and tree stumps regrow even in long deforested areas is argued to be more efficient than planting trees. Lack of legal ownership to trees by locals is the biggest obstacle preventing regrowth.]]
[[Reforestation]] is the restocking of existing depleted forests or in places where there were recently forests. Reforestation could save at least 1{{nbsp}}GtCO<sub>2</sub> per year, at an estimated cost of $5–15 per tonne of carbon dioxide (tCO<sub>2</sub>). Restoring all degraded forests all over the world could capture about 205 GtC (750 Gt{{CO2}}). With increased [[intensive agriculture]] and [[urbanisation]], there is an increase in the amount of abandoned farmland. By some estimates, for every acre of original [[old-growth forest]] cut down, more than 50 acres of new [[secondary forest]]s are growing. In some countries, promoting regrowth on abandoned farmland could offset years of emissions.
Planting new trees can be expensive and a risky investment. For example, about 80 per cent of planted trees in the [[Sahel]] die within two years. Reforestation has higher carbon storage potential than afforestation. Even long-deforested areas still contain an "underground forest" of living roots and tree stumps. Helping native species sprout naturally is cheaper than planting new trees and they are more likely to survive. This could include [[pruning]] and [[coppicing]] to accelerate growth. This also provides woodfuel, which is otherwise a major source of deforestation. Such practices, called [[farmer-managed natural regeneration]], are centuries old but the biggest obstacle towards implementation is ownership of the trees by the state. The state often sells timber rights to businesses which leads to locals uprooting seedlings because they see them as a liability. Legal aid for locals and changes to property law such as in Mali and Niger have led to significant changes. Scientists describe them as the largest positive environmental transformation in Africa. It is possible to discern from space the border between Niger and the more barren land in Nigeria, where the law has not changed.
[[Rangeland]]s account for more half the world’s land and could sequester 35% of terrestrial carbon. [[Pastoralism|Pastoralist]]s are those who move with their herds that feed and migrate over often [[extensive farming|unenclosed grazeland]]s. Such land is usually unable to grow any other kind of food. Rangelands coevolved with large wild herds, many of which have decreased or gone extinct, and [[nomadic pastoralism|pastoralist]]s’ herds replace such wild herds and thus help maintain the ecosystem. However, the movement of herds grazing on large areas over vast distances is increasingly restricted by governments, who often grant exclusive title to lands for more profitable uses which restricts pastoralists to more enclose spaces. This has led to the overgrazing of the land and [[desertification]], as well as [[nomadic conflict|conflict]].
土壌炭素を増加させる多くの方法がある。これは複雑で、測定と計算が困難である。一つの利点は、例えば[[:en:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage|BECCS]]や[[:en:afforestation|植林]]よりも、これらの方法におけるトレードオフが少ないことである。
There are many measures to increase soil carbon. This makes it complex and hard to measure and account for. One advantage is that there are fewer trade-offs for these measures than for [[Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage|BECCS]] or afforestation, for example.
Globally, protecting healthy soils and restoring the soil carbon sponge could remove 7.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere annually. This is more than the annual emissions of the US. Trees capture {{CO2}} while growing above ground and [[Plant root exudates|exuding]] larger amounts of carbon below ground. Trees contribute to the building of a [[soil carbon sponge]]. Carbon formed above ground is released as {{CO2}} immediately when wood is burned. If dead wood remains untouched, only some of the carbon returns to the atmosphere as decomposition proceeds.
Farming can deplete soil carbon and render soil incapable of supporting life. However, [[conservation farming]] can protect carbon in soils, and repair damage over time. The farming practice of [[cover crop]]s is a form of [[carbon farming]]. Methods that enhance carbon sequestration in soil include [[no-till farming]], residue mulching and [[crop rotation]]. Scientists have described the best management practices for European soils to increase soil organic carbon. These are conversion of arable land to grassland, straw incorporation, reduced tillage, straw incorporation combined with reduced tillage, [[Ley farming|ley cropping]] system and cover crops.
Another mitigation option is the production of [[biochar]] and its storage in soils This is the solid material that remains after the [[pyrolysis]] of [[biomass]]. Biochar production releases half of the carbon from the biomass—either released into the atmosphere or captured with CCS—and retains the other half in the stable biochar. It can endure in soil for thousands of years. Biochar may increase the [[soil fertility]] of [[acidic soil]]s and increase [[agricultural productivity]]. During production of biochar, heat is released which may be used as [[bioenergy]].
Wetland restoration is an important mitigation measure. It has moderate to great mitigation potential on a limited land area with low trade-offs and costs. Wetlands perform two important functions in relation to climate change. They can [[Carbon sink|sequester carbon]], converting carbon dioxide to solid plant material through [[photosynthesis]]. They also store and regulate water. Wetlands store about 45 million tonnes of carbon per year globally.
Some [[Wetland methane emissions|wetlands are a significant source of methane emissions]]. Some also emit [[nitrous oxide]]. [[Peat]]land globally covers just 3% of the land's surface. But it stores up to 550 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon. This represents 42% of all soil carbon and exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests. The threat to peatlands includes draining the areas for agriculture. Another threat is cutting down trees for lumber, as the trees help hold and fix the peatland. Additionally, peat is often sold for compost. It is possible to restore degraded peatlands by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover.
[[Mangrove]]s, [[salt marsh]]es and [[seagrass]]es make up the majority of the ocean's vegetated habitats. They only equal 0.05% of the plant biomass on land. But they store carbon 40 times faster than tropical forests. [[Bottom trawling]], [[dredging]] for coastal development and [[fertiliser runoff]] have damaged coastal habitats. Notably, 85% of [[oyster reef]]s globally have been removed in the last two centuries. Oyster reefs clean the water and help other species thrive. This increases biomass in that area. In addition, oyster reefs mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the force of waves from hurricanes. They also reduce the erosion from rising sea levels. Restoration of coastal wetlands is thought to be more cost-effective than restoration of inland wetlands.
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=== 深海 ===
=== Deep ocean ===
{{Further/ja|:en:Carbon sequestration#Sequestration techniques in oceans|:en:Ocean acidification#Technologies to remove carbon dioxide from the ocean|:en:Blue carbon}}
{{Further|Carbon sequestration#Sequestration techniques in oceans|Ocean acidification#Technologies to remove carbon dioxide from the ocean|Blue carbon}}
These options focus on the carbon which ocean reservoirs can store. They include [[ocean fertilization]], [[ocean alkalinity enhancement]] or [[enhanced weathering]].The IPCC found in 2022 ocean-based mitigation options currently have only limited deployment potential. But it assessed that their future mitigation potential is large. It found that in total, ocean-based methods could remove 1–100 Gt of {{CO2}} per year. Their costs are in the order of US$40–500 per tonne of {{CO2}}. Most of these options could also help to reduce [[ocean acidification]]. This is the drop in pH value caused by increased atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations.
The recovery of whale populations can play a role in mitigation as [[whale]]s play a significant part in [[nutrient recycling]] in the ocean. This occurs through what is referred to as the [[whale pump]], where whales’ liquid feces stay at the surface of the ocean. [[Phytoplankton]] live near the surface of the ocean in order use sunlight to photosynthesize and rely on much of the carbon, nitrogen and iron of the feces. As the phytoplankton form the [[Primary production|base]] of the [[marine food chain]] this increases ocean biomass and thus the amount of carbon sequestrated in it.
Blue carbon management is another type of ocean-based biological [[carbon dioxide removal]] (CDR). It can involve land-based as well as ocean-based measures. The term usually refers to the role that [[tidal marsh]]es, [[mangrove]]s and [[seagrass]]es can play in carbon sequestration. Some of these efforts can also take place in deep ocean waters. This is where the vast majority of ocean carbon is held. These ecosystems can contribute to climate change mitigation and also to [[ecosystem-based adaptation]]. Conversely, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost they release carbon back to the atmosphere. There is increasing interest in developing blue carbon potential. Scientists have found that in some cases these types of ecosystems remove far more carbon per area than terrestrial forests. However, the long-term effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution remains under discussion.
Enhanced weathering could remove 2–4 Gt of {{CO2}} per year. This process aims to accelerate natural [[weathering]] by spreading finely ground [[Silicate mineral|silicate]] rock, such as [[basalt]], onto surfaces. This speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air. It [[Carbon dioxide removal|removes carbon dioxide]] from the atmosphere, permanently storing it in solid [[carbonate mineral]]s or ocean [[alkalinity]].
[[File:Carbon sequestration-2009-10-07.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Schematic showing both terrestrial and geological sequestration of carbon dioxide emissions from a large point source, for example burning natural gas]]
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大気中の二酸化炭素(CO<sub>2</sub>)を除去する伝統的な陸上ベースの方法に加えて、他の技術も開発中である。これらはCO<sub>2</sub>排出量を削減し、既存の大気中CO<sub>2</sub>濃度を低下させる可能性がある。[[:en:Carbon capture and storage|炭素回収・貯留]](CCS)は、セメント工場や[[:en:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage|バイオマス]]発電所などの大規模な[[:en:Point source pollution|点源]]からCO<sub>2</sub>を回収し、大気中に放出せずに安全に貯蔵することで気候変動を緩和する方法である。IPCCは、CCSなしでは地球温暖化を食い止めるコストが倍増すると推定している。
In addition to traditional land-based methods to remove carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) from the air, other technologies are under development. These could reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and lower existing atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels. [[Carbon capture and storage]] (CCS) is a method to mitigate climate change by capturing CO<sub>2</sub> from large [[Point source pollution|point sources]], such as cement factories or [[Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage|biomass]] power plants. It then stores it away safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. The IPCC estimates that the costs of halting global warming would double without CCS.
Among the most viable carbon dioxide removal methods considered alongside solar radiation modification, biochar soil amendment is already being deployed commercially. Studies indicate that the carbon it contains remains stable in soils for centuries, giving it a durable potential of removing gigatonnes of CO2 per year. Expert assessments place the net cost of removing CO2 with biochar between US$30 and $120 per tonne. Market data show that biochar supplied 94% of all durable CDR credits delivered in 2023, demonstrating current scalability. Stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI), by comparison, could reduce global temperature quickly by dispersing sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere; however, deployment at climatically relevant scale would require the design and certification of a new fleet of high‑altitude aircraft, a process estimated to take a decade or more, and ongoing operating costs of about US$18 billion for each degree Celsius of cooling. While models confirm that SAI would lower global mean temperature, there are potential side effect including ozone depletion, altered
regional precipitation patterns, and the risk of a sudden "termination shock" warming if the programme were interrupted. These systemic risks are absent from biochar deployment.
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[[:en:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage|バイオエネルギーと炭素回収・貯蔵]](BECCS)は、CCSの潜在能力を拡張し、大気中CO<sub>2</sub>濃度を低下させることを目的としている。このプロセスは、バイオエネルギーのために栽培されたバイオマスを使用する。バイオマスは、燃焼、発酵、または熱分解によるバイオマスの消費を通じて、電力、熱、バイオ燃料などの有用な形態のエネルギーを生成する。このプロセスは、バイオマスが成長する際に大気から取り込まれたCO<sub>2</sub>を回収する。その後、地下に貯蔵するか、バイオ炭として土地に適用する。これにより、[[:en:Carbon dioxide removal|大気から効果的に除去]]される。これはBECCSを[[:en:Negative emissions technology|負の排出技術]](NET)にする。
[[Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage]] (BECCS) expands on the potential of CCS and aims to lower atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels. This process uses [[biomass]] grown for [[bioenergy]]. The biomass yields energy in useful forms such as electricity, heat, biofuels, etc. through consumption of the biomass via combustion, fermentation, or pyrolysis. The process captures the CO<sub>2</sub> that was extracted from the atmosphere when it grew. It then stores it underground or via land application as [[biochar]]. This effectively [[Carbon dioxide removal|removes it from the atmosphere]]. This makes BECCS a negative emissions technology (NET).
Scientists estimated the potential range of negative emissions from BECCS in 2018 as 0–22 Gt per year. {{As of|2022}}, BECCS was capturing approximately 2 million tonnes per year of CO<sub>2</sub> annually. The cost and availability of biomass limits wide deployment of BECCS.{{rp|10}} BECCS currently forms a big part of achieving climate targets beyond 2050 in modelling, such as by the [[Integrated assessment modelling|Integrated Assessment Models]] (IAMs) associated with the IPCC process. But many scientists are sceptical due to the risk of loss of biodiversity.
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[[:en:Direct air capture|直接空気回収]]は、周囲の空気から直接CO<sub>2</sub>を回収するプロセスである。これは、点源から炭素を回収するCCSとは対照的である。それは、[[:en:Carbon sequestration|隔離]]、[[:en:Carbon capture and utilization|利用]]、または[[:en:carbon-neutral fuel|カーボンニュートラル燃料]]や[[:en:windgas|ウィンドガス]]の生産のために濃縮されたCO<sub>2</sub>の流れを生成する。
[[Direct air capture]] is a process of capturing {{co2}} directly from the ambient air. This is in contrast to CCS which captures carbon from point sources. It generates a concentrated stream of {{CO2}} for [[Carbon sequestration|sequestration]], [[Carbon capture and utilization|utilisation]] or production of [[carbon-neutral fuel]] and [[windgas]].
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== セクター別緩和{{Anchor|Mitigation by sector}} ==
== Mitigation by sector ==
{{See also/ja|:en:Greenhouse gas emissions#Emissions by sector}}
{{See also|Greenhouse gas emissions#Emissions by sector}}
{{Imageright|
{{multiple image
{{multiple image
| total_width = 500
| total_width = 500
| image1 = Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector.svg
| image1 = Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector.svg
| caption1 = Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, industry is the sector with the highest share of global emissions.
| image2 = Global GHG Emissions by Sector 2016.png
| image2 = Global GHG Emissions by Sector 2016.png
| caption2 = 2016 global greenhouse gas emissions by sector.Percentages are calculated from estimated global emissions of all Kyoto Greenhouse Gases, converted to {{CO2}} equivalent quantities (Gt{{CO2}}e).
建築部門は世界のエネルギー関連{{CO2}}排出量の23%を占める。エネルギーの約半分は暖房と給湯に使われている。建物の断熱は、一次エネルギー需要を大幅に削減できる。[[:en:Heat pump|ヒートポンプ]]の負荷は、変動性再生可能エネルギー源を系統に統合するためのデマンドレスポンスに参加できる柔軟な資源も提供する可能性がある。[[:en:Solar water heating|太陽熱温水器]]は熱エネルギーを直接利用する。充足策には、世帯のニーズの変化に応じてより小さな家に移ること、空間の複合利用、機器の共有利用などがある。計画者や土木工学者は、パッシブソーラー建築設計、低エネルギー建築、またはゼロエネルギー建築技術を使用して新しい建物を建設できる。さらに、都市部の開発において、より明るい色で反射率の高い材料を使用することで、よりエネルギー効率良く冷房できる建物を設計することが可能である。
The building sector accounts for 23% of global energy-related {{CO2}} emissions. About half of the energy is used for space and [[water heating]]. Building insulation can reduce the primary energy demand significantly. [[Heat pump]] loads may also provide a flexible resource that can participate in [[demand response]] to integrate variable renewable resources into the grid. [[Solar water heating]] uses thermal energy directly. Sufficiency measures include moving to smaller houses when the needs of households change, mixed use of spaces and the collective use of devices. Planners and civil engineers can construct new buildings using [[passive solar building design]], [[low-energy building]], or [[zero-energy building]] techniques. In addition, it is possible to design buildings that are more energy-efficient to cool by using lighter-coloured, more reflective materials in the development of urban areas.
Heat pumps efficiently heat buildings, and cool them by [[air conditioning]]. A modern heat pump typically transports around three to five times more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. The amount depends on the [[coefficient of performance]] and the outside temperature.
Refrigeration and air conditioning account for about 10% of global {{CO2}} emissions caused by fossil fuel-based energy production and the use of fluorinated gases. Alternative cooling systems, such as [[passive cooling]] building design and [[passive daytime radiative cooling]] surfaces, can reduce air conditioning use. Suburbs and cities in hot and arid climates can significantly reduce energy consumption from cooling with daytime radiative cooling.
Energy consumption for cooling is likely to rise significantly due to increasing heat and availability of devices in poorer countries. Of the 2.8 billion people living in the hottest parts of the world, only 8% currently have air conditioners, compared with 90% of people in the US and Japan. By combining energy efficiency improvements and decarbonising electricity for air conditioning with the transition away from super-polluting refrigerants, the world could avoid cumulative greenhouse gas emissions of up to 210–460 Gt{{CO2}}-eq over the next four decades. A shift to renewable energy in the cooling sector comes with two advantages: Solar energy production with mid-day peaks corresponds with the load required for cooling and additionally, cooling has a large potential for load management in the electric grid.
Cities emitted 28 GtCO<sub>2</sub>-eq in 2020 of combined CO<sub>2</sub> and {{CH4}} emissions. This was from producing and consuming goods and services. Climate-smart [[urban planning]] aims to reduce [[urban sprawl|sprawl]] to reduce the distance travelled. This lowers emissions from transportation. Switching from cars by improving [[walkability]] and [[cycling infrastructure]] is beneficial to a country's economy as a whole.
[[Urban forestry]], lakes and other blue and green infrastructure can reduce emissions directly and indirectly by reducing energy demand for cooling. Methane emissions from [[municipal solid waste]] can be reduced by segregation, [[compost]]ing, and recycling.
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=== 輸送 ===
=== Transport ===
{{Main/ja|:en:Sustainable transport|:en:Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}
{{Main|Sustainable transport|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}
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[[File:2015- Passenger electric vehicle (EV) annual sales - BloombergNEF.svg|thumb|電気自動車(EV)の販売は、温室効果ガスを排出するガソリン車からの移行傾向を示している。]]
[[File:2015- Passenger electric vehicle (EV) annual sales - BloombergNEF.svg|thumb|Sales of electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles that generate greenhouse gases.]]
Transportation accounts for 15% of emissions worldwide. Increasing the use of public transport, low-carbon freight transport and [[cycling]] are important components of transport decarbonisation.
[[Electric vehicle]]s and environmentally friendly rail help to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. In most cases, electric trains are more efficient than air transport and truck transport. Other efficiency means include improved public transport, [[smart mobility]], carsharing and [[hybrid vehicle|electric hybrids]]. Fossil-fuel for passenger cars can be included in emissions trading. Furthermore, moving away from a [[car]]-dominated transport system towards low-carbon advanced public transport system is important.
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重量があり大型の自家用車(自動車など)は、移動に多くのエネルギーを必要とし、都市空間を大きく占める。これらを代替するいくつかの交通手段が利用可能である。欧州連合は[[:en:European Green Deal|欧州グリーンディール]]の一環としてスマートモビリティを位置づけている。[[:en:Smart city|スマートシティ]]においても、スマートモビリティは重要である。[[File:Societe de transport de Montreal bus 36-902 - 08.jpg|thumb|モントリオールの[[:en:Battery electric bus|電気バス]]]]
Heavyweight, large personal vehicles (such as cars) require a lot of energy to move and take up much urban space. Several alternatives modes of transport are available to replace these. The European Union has made smart mobility part of its [[European Green Deal]]. In [[Smart city|smart cities]], smart mobility is also important.[[File:Societe de transport de Montreal bus 36-902 - 08.jpg|thumb|[[Battery electric bus]] in [[Montreal]]]]
The World Bank is helping lower income countries buy electric buses. Their purchase price is higher than diesel buses. But lower running costs and health improvements due to cleaner air can offset this higher price.
Between one quarter and three quarters of cars on the road by 2050 are forecast to be electric vehicles. [[Hydrogen]] may be a solution for long-distance heavy freight trucks, if batteries alone are too heavy.
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==== 船舶 ====
==== Shipping ====
{{Further/ja|:en:Environmental effects of shipping#Greenhouse gas emissions}}
{{Further|Environmental effects of shipping#Greenhouse gas emissions}}
In the shipping industry, the use of [[liquefied natural gas]] (LNG) as a marine bunker fuel is driven by emissions regulations. Ship operators must switch from [[heavy fuel oil]] to more expensive oil-based fuels, implement costly flue gas treatment technologies or switch to [[Marine LNG Engine|LNG engines]]. Methane slip, when gas leaks unburned through the engine, lowers the advantages of LNG. [[Maersk]], the world's biggest container shipping line and vessel operator, warns of [[stranded asset]]s when investing in transitional fuels like LNG. The company lists green [[ammonia]] as one of the preferred fuel types of the future. It has announced the first carbon-neutral vessel on the water by 2023, running on carbon-neutral [[methanol]]. Cruise operators are trialling partially [[hydrogen-powered ship]]s.
Hybrid and all electric ferries are suitable for short distances. Norway's goal is an all electric fleet by 2025.
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==== 航空輸送 ====
==== Air transport ====
{{Further/ja|:en:environmental impact of aviation}}
{{Further|environmental impact of aviation}}
[[File:CO2 emissions fraction of Aviation (%25).png|thumb|1940年から2018年の間に、航空からの[[:en:CO2 emissions|CO<sub>2</sub>排出量]]は、全CO<sub>2</sub>排出量の0.7%から2.65%に増加した。]]
[[File:CO2 emissions fraction of Aviation (%25).png|thumb|Between 1940 and 2018, aviation [[CO2 emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] grew from 0.7% to 2.65% of all {{CO2}} emissions.]]
Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide, [[nitrogen oxides]], [[Condensation trails|contrails]] and particulates. Their [[radiative forcing]] is estimated at 1.3–1.4 that of {{CO2}} alone, excluding induced [[cirrus cloud]]. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all {{CO2}} emissions.
The aviation industry has become more fuel efficient. But overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased.By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.
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航空の環境フットプリントは、[[:en:fuel economy in aircraft|航空機の燃料効率]]を向上させることで削減できる。窒素酸化物、粒子状物質、飛行機雲による非{{CO2}}気候影響を低減するために、飛行ルートを最適化することも役立つ。[[:en:Aviation biofuel|航空バイオ燃料]]、[[:en:carbon emission trading|炭素排出権取引]]、[[:en:carbon offsetting|炭素オフセット]](191カ国が参加するICAOの[[:en:Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation|国際航空のためのカーボンオフセットおよび削減スキーム]](CORSIA)の一部)は、CO2排出量を削減できる。[[:en:Short-haul flight ban|短距離飛行禁止]]、鉄道接続、個人的な選択、[[:en:aviation taxation and subsidies|航空機への課税と補助金]]は、フライト数を減らすことにつながる。[[:en:Hybrid electric aircraft|ハイブリッド電気航空機]]や[[:en:electric aircraft|電気航空機]]、または[[:en:hydrogen-powered aircraft|水素動力航空機]]が化石燃料動力航空機に取って代わる可能性がある。
It is possible to reduce aviation's environmental footprint by better [[fuel economy in aircraft]]. Optimising flight routes to lower non-{{CO2}} effects on climate from nitrogen oxides, particulates or contrails can also help. [[Aviation biofuel]], [[carbon emission trading]] and [[carbon offsetting]], part of the 191 nation ICAO's [[Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation]] (CORSIA), can lower {{CO2}} emissions. [[Short-haul flight ban]]s, train connections, personal choices and [[aviation taxation and subsidies|taxation on flights]] can lead to fewer flights. [[Hybrid electric aircraft]] and [[electric aircraft]] or [[hydrogen-powered aircraft]] may replace fossil fuel-powered aircraft.
Experts expect emissions from aviation to rise in most projections, at least until 2040. They currently amount to 180 Mt of {{CO2}} or 11% of transport emissions. [[Aviation biofuel]] and hydrogen can only cover a small proportion of flights in the coming years. Experts expect hybrid-driven aircraft to start commercial regional scheduled flights after 2030. Battery-powered aircraft are likely to enter the market after 2035. Under CORSIA, flight operators can purchase [[carbon offset]]s to cover their emissions above 2019 levels. CORSIA will be compulsory from 2027.
[[File:Environmental-impact-of-food-by-life-cycle-stage.png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Greenhouse gas emissions]] across the [[supply chain]] for different foods, showing which type of food should be encouraged and which discouraged from a mitigation perspective]]
{{See also/ja|:en:Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture|:en:Environmental impact of meat production|:en:Sustainable agriculture}}
{{See also|Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture|Environmental impact of meat production|4=Sustainable agriculture}}
Almost 20% of greenhouse gas emissions come from the agriculture and forestry sector. To significantly reduce these emissions, annual investments in the agriculture sector need to increase to $260 billion by 2030. The potential benefits from these investments are estimated at $4.3 trillion by 2030, offering a substantial economic return of 16-to-1.
Mitigation measures in the food system can be divided into four categories. These are demand-side changes, ecosystem protections, mitigation on farms, and mitigation in [[supply chains]]. On the demand side, limiting [[food waste]] is an effective way to reduce food emissions. Changes to a diet less reliant on animal products such as [[plant-based diets]] are also effective.
With 21% of global methane emissions, cattle are a major driver of global warming. When rainforests are cut and the land is converted for grazing, the impact is even higher. In Brazil, producing 1 kg of beef can result in the emission of up to 335 kg CO<sub>2</sub>-eq.
他の家畜、糞尿管理、稲作も、農業における化石燃料燃焼に加えて温室効果ガスを排出する。
Other livestock, manure management and rice cultivation also emit greenhouse gases, in addition to fossil fuel combustion in agriculture.
Important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection, introduction of [[Methanotroph|methanotrophic bacteria]] into the rumen, diet modification and grazing management. Other options are diet changes towards [[ruminant]]-free alternatives, such as [[milk substitute]]s and [[meat analogue]]s. Non-ruminant livestock, such as poultry, emit far fewer GHGs.
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稲作におけるメタン排出量は、水管理の改善、乾燥種まきと一度の排水の組み合わせ、または[[:en:alternate wetting and drying|間断灌漑]]を実行することによって削減可能である。これにより、湛水と比較して最大90%の排出量削減が可能となり、収量も増加する。
It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a [[alternate wetting and drying|sequence of wetting and drying]]. This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields.
Reducing the usage of [[Fertilizer#Nitrogen_fertilizers|nitrogen fertilizers]] through [[nutrient management]] could avoid nitrous oxide emissions equal to 2.77 - 11.48 gigatons of carbon dioxide from 2020 to 2050.
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=== 産業 ===
=== Industry ===
{{Pie chart
{{Pie chart
| caption= Global [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|carbon dioxide emissions]] by country in 2023:
| caption= 2023年国毎の[[:en:List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|二酸化炭素排出量]]
| other = yes
| other = yes
| label1 = China
| label1 = 中国
| value1 = 31.8 | color1=#E33
| value1 = 31.8 | color1=#E33
| label2 = United States
| label2 = 米国
| value2 = 14.4 | color2=#1A9
| value2 = 14.4 | color2=#1A9
| label3 = European Union
| label3 = EU
| value3 = 4.9 | color3=#36A
| value3 = 4.9 | color3=#36A
| label4 = India
| label4 = インド
| value4 = 9.5 | color4=#CC5
| value4 = 9.5 | color4=#CC5
| label5 = Russia
| label5 = ロシア
| value5 = 5.8 | color5=#E72
| value5 = 5.8 | color5=#E72
| label6 = Japan
| label6 = 日本
| value6 = 3.5 | color6=#928
| value6 = 3.5 | color6=#928
}}
}}
Industry is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases when direct and indirect emissions are included. [[Electrification]] can reduce emissions from industry. [[Green hydrogen]] can play a major role in [[energy-intensive industries]] for which electricity is not an option. Further mitigation options involve the steel and cement industry, which can switch to a less polluting production process. Products can be made with less material to reduce emission-intensity and industrial processes can be made more efficient. Finally, [[circular economy]] measures reduce the need for new materials. This also saves on emissions that would have been released from the mining of collecting of those materials.
The decarbonisation of cement production requires new technologies, and therefore investment in innovation. But no technology for mitigation is yet mature. So CCS will be necessary at least in the short-term.
Another sector with a significant carbon footprint is the steel sector, which is responsible for about 7% of global emissions. Emissions can be reduced by using [[electric arc furnaces]] to melt and recycle scrap steel. To produce virgin steel without emissions, [[blast furnace]]s could be replaced by hydrogen [[direct reduced iron]] and [[electric arc furnace]]s. Alternatively, carbon capture and storage solutions can be used.
Coal, gas and oil production often come with significant methane leakage. In the early 2020s some governments recognised the scale of the problem and introduced regulations. [[Methane leaks]] at oil and gas wells and processing plants are cost-effective to fix in countries which can easily trade gas internationally. There are leaks in countries where gas is cheap; such as Iran, and Turkmenistan. Nearly all this can be stopped by replacing old components and preventing routine flaring. [[Coalbed methane]] may continue leaking even after the mine has been closed. But it can be captured by drainage and/or ventilation systems. Fossil fuel firms do not always have financial incentives to tackle methane leakage.
Co-benefits of climate change mitigation, also often referred to as ''ancillary benefits'', were firstly dominated in the scientific literature by studies that describe how lower GHG emissions lead to better air quality and consequently impact human health positively. The scope of co-benefits research expanded to its economic, social, ecological and political implications.
Positive secondary effects that occur from climate mitigation and [[climate change adaptation|adaptation]] measures have been mentioned in research since the 1990s. The IPCC first mentioned the role of co-benefits in 2001, followed by its fourth and fifth assessment cycle stressing improved working environment, reduced waste, health benefits and reduced capital expenditures.
The IPCC pointed out in 2007: "Co-benefits of GHG mitigation can be an important decision criteria in analyses carried out by policy-makers, but they are often neglected" and added that the co-benefits are "not quantified, monetised or even identified by businesses and decision-makers". Appropriate consideration of co-benefits can greatly "influence policy decisions concerning the timing and level of mitigation action", and there can be "significant advantages to the national economy and technical innovation".
Co-benefits can positively impact employment, industrial development, states' energy independence and energy self-consumption. The deployment of renewable energies can foster job opportunities. Depending on the country and deployment scenario, replacing coal power plants with renewable energy can more than double the number of jobs per average MW capacity. Investments in renewable energies, especially in solar- and wind energy, can boost the value of production. Countries which rely on energy imports can enhance their energy independence and ensure supply security by deploying renewables. National energy generation from renewables lowers the demand for fossil fuel imports which scales up annual economic saving.
A higher share of renewables can additionally lead to more [[energy security]].Socioeconomic co-benefits have been analysed such as energy access in rural areas and improved rural livelihoods. Rural areas which are not fully electrified can benefit from the deployment of [[Renewable energy|renewable energies]]. Solar-powered mini-grids can remain economically viable, cost-competitive and reduce the number of power cuts. Energy reliability has additional social implications: stable electricity improves the quality of education.
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国際エネルギー機関([[:en:International Energy Agency|IEA]])は[[:en:Efficient energy use|エネルギー効率]]の「多重便益アプローチ」を明示し、国際再生可能エネルギー機関([[:en:International Renewable Energy Agency|IRENA]])は再生可能エネルギー部門のコベネフィットのリストを具体化した。
The International Energy Agency ([[International Energy Agency|IEA]]) spelled out the "multiple benefits approach" of [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] while the International Renewable Energy Agency ([[International Renewable Energy Agency|IRENA]]) operationalised the list of co-benefits of the renewable energy sector.
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===健康と福祉===
===Health and well-being===
{{Further/ja|:en:Effects of climate change on human health#Benefits from climate change mitigation and adaptation}}
{{Further|Effects of climate change on human health#Benefits from climate change mitigation and adaptation}}
{{See also/ja|:en:Health and environmental impact of the coal industry|:en:Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry}}
{{See also|Health and environmental impact of the coal industry|Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry}}
The health benefits from climate change mitigation are significant. Potential measures can not only mitigate future health impacts from climate change but also improve health directly. Climate change mitigation is interconnected with various health co-benefits, such as those from reduced [[air pollution]]. Air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion is both a major driver of global warming and the cause of a large number of annual deaths. Some estimates are as high as {{tooltip|2=A review of this and a more nuanced assessment of mortality impacts in terms of contribution to death, rather than number of deceased, may be needed|8.7 million}} excess deaths during 2018. A 2023 study estimated that fossil fuels kill over 5 million people each year, as of 2019, by causing diseases such as [[heart attack]], [[stroke]] and [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]. [[Particulate pollution|Particulate air pollution]] kills by far the most, followed by [[ground-level ozone]].
Mitigation policies can also promote healthier diets such as less red meat, more active lifestyles, and increased exposure to green urban spaces. Access to urban green spaces provides benefits to mental health as well. The increased use of [[Green infrastructure|green]] and [[Blue space|blue infrastructure]] can reduce the [[urban heat island]] effect. This reduces [[Hyperthermia|heat stress]] on people.
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===気候変動適応===
===Climate change adaptation===
{{Further/ja|:en:Climate change adaptation#Co-benefits with mitigation}}
{{Further|Climate change adaptation#Co-benefits with mitigation}}
Some mitigation measures have co-benefits in the area of [[climate change adaptation]]. This is for example the case for many [[nature-based solutions]]. Examples in the urban context include urban green and blue infrastructure which provide mitigation as well as adaptation benefits. This can be in the form of [[Urban forestry|urban forests]] and street trees, [[green roof]]s and [[Green wall|walls]], [[urban agriculture]] and so forth. The mitigation is achieved through the conservation and expansion of carbon sinks and reduced energy use of buildings. Adaptation benefits come for example through reduced heat stress and flooding risk.
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[[File:Carbon taxes and emission trading worldwide.svg|alt=世界中の炭素税と排出権取引|thumb|upright=1.35|世界における排出量取引と炭素税 (2019)
[[File:Carbon taxes and emission trading worldwide.svg|alt=Carbon taxes and emission trading worldwide|thumb|upright=1.35|Emission trading and carbon taxes around the world (2019)
Mitigation measures can also have negative side effects and risks. In agriculture and forestry, mitigation measures can affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. In renewable energy, mining for metals and minerals can increase threats to conservation areas. There is some research into ways to recycle solar panels and electronic waste. This would create a source for materials so there is no need to mine them.
Scholars have found that discussions about risks and negative side effects of mitigation measures can lead to deadlock or the feeling that there are insuperable barriers to taking action.
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== 費用と資金 ==
== Costs and funding ==
{{Main/ja|:en:Economics of climate change mitigation#Assessing costs and benefits|:en:Economic analysis of climate change}}
{{Main|Economics of climate change mitigation#Assessing costs and benefits|Economic analysis of climate change}}
Several factors affect mitigation cost estimates. One is the baseline. This is a reference scenario that the alternative mitigation scenario is compared with. Others are the way costs are modelled, and assumptions about future government policy. Cost estimates for mitigation for specific regions depend on the quantity of emissions allowed for that region in future, as well as the timing of interventions.
Mitigation costs will vary according to how and when emissions are cut. Early, well-planned action will minimise the costs. Globally, the benefits of keeping warming under 2 °C exceed the costs, which according to [[The Economist]] are affordable.
Economists estimate the cost of climate change mitigation at between 1% and 2% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. While this is a large sum, it is still far less than the subsidies governments provide to the ailing fossil fuel industry. The [[International Monetary Fund]] estimated this at more than $5 trillion per year.
Another estimate says that financial flows for climate mitigation and adaptation are going to be over $800 billion per year. These financial requirements are predicted to exceed $4 trillion per year by 2030.
Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs. The economic repercussions of mitigation vary widely across regions and households, depending on policy design and level of [[international cooperation]]. Delayed global cooperation increases policy costs across regions, especially in those that are relatively carbon intensive at present. Pathways with uniform carbon values show higher mitigation costs in more carbon-intensive regions, in fossil-fuels exporting regions and in poorer regions. Aggregate quantifications expressed in GDP or monetary terms undervalue the economic effects on households in poorer countries. The actual effects on welfare and well-being are comparatively larger.
[[Cost–benefit analysis]] may be unsuitable for analysing climate change mitigation as a whole. But it is still useful for analysing the difference between a 1.5 °C target and 2 °C. One way of estimating the cost of reducing emissions is by considering the likely costs of potential technological and output changes. Policymakers can compare the [[marginal abatement costs]] of different methods to assess the cost and amount of possible abatement over time. The marginal abatement costs of the various measures will differ by country, by sector, and over time.
[[Eco-tariff]]s on only imports contribute to reduced global export [[Competition (economics)|competitiveness]] and to [[deindustrialisation]].
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=== 気候変動の影響によるコストの回避 ===
=== Avoided costs of climate change effects ===
{{See also/ja|:en:Economic impacts of climate change}}
{{See also|Economic impacts of climate change}}
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[[:en:effects of climate change|気候変動の影響]]を限定することで、気候変動によるコストの一部を回避することが可能である。[[:en:Stern Review|スターン・レビュー]]によると、行動しない場合、現在そして未来永劫、毎年世界のGDPの少なくとも5%に相当する損失を被る可能性がある。より広範なリスクと影響を含めると、これはGDPの20%以上になることもある。しかし、気候変動を緩和するコストは、GDPの約2%に過ぎない。また、温室効果ガス排出量の大幅な削減を遅らせることは、財政的な観点からも得策ではないかもしれない。
It is possible to avoid some of the costs of the [[effects of climate change]] by limiting climate change. According to the [[Stern Review]], inaction can be as high as the equivalent of losing at least 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP) each year, now and forever. This can be up to 20% of GDP or more when including a wider range of risks and impacts. But mitigating climate change will only cost about 2% of GDP. Also it may not be a good idea from a financial perspective to delay significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.
Mitigation solutions are often evaluated in terms of costs and greenhouse gas reduction potentials. This fails to take into account the direct effects on human well-being.
Mitigation at the speed and scale required to limit warming to 2 °C or below implies deep economic and structural changes. These raise multiple types of distributional concerns across regions, income classes and sectors.
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排出量削減の責任をどのように配分するかについては、様々な提案がなされてきた。これらには、[[:en:egalitarianism|平等主義]]、最低限の消費水準に基づく[[:en:basic needs|基本的ニーズ]]、比例原則、そして[[:en:Polluter pays principle|汚染者負担原則]]が含まれる。具体的な提案の一つに「一人当たり均等配分」がある。このアプローチには2つのカテゴリーがある。最初のカテゴリーでは、排出量が国家人口に応じて配分される。2番目のカテゴリーでは、排出量が歴史的または累積的な排出量を考慮しようとする方法で配分される。
There have been different proposals on how to allocate responsibility for cutting emissions. These include [[egalitarianism]], [[basic needs]] according to a minimum level of consumption, proportionality and the [[Polluter pays principle|polluter-pays principle]]. A specific proposal is "equal per capita entitlements". This approach has two categories. In the first category, emissions are allocated according to national population. In the second category, emissions are allocated in a way that attempts to account for historical or cumulative emissions.
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===融資===
===Funding===
{{main/ja|:en:Climate finance|Economics of climate change mitigation#Finance}}
{{main|Climate finance|Economics of climate change mitigation#Finance}}
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経済発展と炭素排出量削減を両立させるために、開発途上国は特に財政的・技術的な支援を必要としている。
In order to reconcile economic development with mitigating carbon emissions, developing countries need particular support. This would be both financial and technical. The IPCC found that accelerated support would also tackle inequities in financial and economic vulnerability to climate change. One way to achieve this is the Kyoto Protocol's [[Clean Development Mechanism]] (CDM).
IPCCは、このような支援を加速させることで、気候変動に対する財政的・経済的脆弱性における不平等を解決できるとも指摘しています。この目標を達成する一つの方法として、京都議定書の[[:en:Clean Development Mechanism|クリーン開発メカニズム]](CDM)が挙げられる。
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<span id="Policies"></span>
== Policies ==
== 政策{{Anchor|Policies}} ==
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=== 国家政策 ===
=== National policies ===
[[File:Total CO2 emissions by country in 2017 vs per capita emissions (top 40 countries).svg|thumb|中国は世界のCO<sub>2</sub>排出量で首位、米国が2位だが、一人当たりでは米国が中国をかなり上回っている(2017年データ)。]]
[[File:Total CO2 emissions by country in 2017 vs per capita emissions (top 40 countries).svg|thumb|Although China is the leading producer of {{CO2}} emissions in the world with the U.S. second, per capita the U.S. leads China by a fair margin (data from 2017).]]Climate change mitigation policies can have a large and complex impact on the socio-economic status of individuals and countries This can be both positive and negative. It is important to design policies well and make them inclusive. Otherwise climate change mitigation measures can impose higher financial costs on poor households.
An evaluation was conducted on 1,500 climate policy interventions made between 1998 and 2022. The interventions took place in 41 countries and across 6 continents, which together contributed 81% of the world's total emissions as of 2019. The evaluation found 63 successful interventions that resulted in significant emission reductions; the total {{CO2}} release averted by these interventions was between 0.6 and 1.8 billion metric tonnes. The study focused on interventions with at least 4.5% emission reductions, but the researchers noted that meeting the reductions required by the Paris Agreement would require 23 billion metric tonnes per year. Generally, carbon pricing was found to be most effective in [[Developed country|developed countries]], while regulation was most effective in the [[Developing country|developing countries]]. Complementary policy mixes benefited from synergies, and were mostly found to be more effective interventions than the implementation of isolated policies.
The [[OECD]] recognise 48 distinct climate mitigation policies suitable for implementation at national level. Broadly, these can be categorised into three types: ''market based'' instruments, ''non market based'' instruments and ''other'' policies.
* 「'''その他の'''」政策には、「独立した気候諮問機関の設立」が含まれる。
* '''Other''' policies include the ''Establishing an Independent climate advisory body''.
* '''Non market based''' policies include the Implementing or tighening of ''Regulatory standards''. These set technology or performance standards. They can be effective in addressing the [[market failure]] of informational barriers.
*Among '''market based''' policies, the ''carbon price'' has been found to be the most effective (at least for developed economies), and has its own section below. Additional ''market based'' policy instruments for climate change mitigation include:
''Emissions taxes'' These often require domestic emitters to pay a fixed fee or tax for every tonne of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions they release into the atmosphere. [[Methane emissions]] from fossil fuel extraction are also occasionally taxed. But methane and nitrous oxide from agriculture are typically not subject to tax.
<br />「有害な補助金の撤廃」多くの国が排出に影響を与える活動に補助金を提供している。例えば、多くの国で多額の化石燃料補助金が存在する。[[:en:Fossil fuel phase-out#Phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies|化石燃料補助金の段階的廃止]]は、気候危機に対処するために極めて重要である。しかし、抗議運動や貧困層をさらに貧しくすることを避けるために、慎重に行われる必要がある。
<br />''Removing unhelpful subsidies:'' Many countries provide subsidies for activities that affect emissions. For example, significant [[fossil fuel subsidies]] are present in many countries. [[Fossil fuel phase-out#Phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies|Phasing-out fossil fuel subsidies]] is crucial to address the climate crisis. It must however be done carefully to avoid protests and making poor people poorer.
<br />''Creating helpful subsidies'': Creating subsidies and financial incentives. One example is [[Energy subsidy|energy subsidies]] to support clean generation which is not yet commercially viable such as tidal power.
[[File:ETS-allowance-prices.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Carbon emission trade – allowance prices from 2008]]
温室効果ガス排出に追加費用を課すことで、化石燃料の競争力を低下させ、低炭素エネルギー源への投資を加速させることができる。固定された[[炭素税]]を課す、または動的な[[:en:carbon emission trading|炭素排出権取引]](ETS)システムに参加する国が増加している。2021年には、世界の温室効果ガス排出量の21%以上が炭素価格によってカバーされた。これは、[[:en:Chinese national carbon trading scheme|中国全国炭素排出権取引スキーム]]の導入により、以前よりも大幅な増加である。
Imposing additional costs on greenhouse gas emissions can make fossil fuels less competitive and accelerate investments into low-carbon sources of energy. A growing number of countries raise a fixed [[carbon tax]] or participate in dynamic [[carbon emission trading]] (ETS) systems. In 2021, more than 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions were covered by a carbon price. This was a big increase from earlier due to the introduction of the [[Chinese national carbon trading scheme]].
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排出量取引制度は、特定の削減目標に対して排出枠を制限する可能性を提供する。しかし、排出枠の過剰供給により、ほとんどのETSは低価格水準の10ドル前後にとどまり、影響は小さい。これには、2021年に7ドル/トンCO<sub>2</sub>で始まった中国のETSも含まれる。唯一の例外は[[:en:European Union Emission Trading Scheme|欧州連合排出量取引制度]]であり、ここでは価格が2018年に上昇し始め、2022年には約80ユーロ/トンCO<sub>2</sub>に達した。これにより、[[:en:emission intensity|排出原単位]]にもよるが、石炭火力発電で約0.04ユーロ/KWh、ガス火力発電で約0.02ユーロ/KWhの追加費用が発生する。エネルギー要件が高く排出量の多い産業は、しばしば非常に低いエネルギー税しか支払わないか、全く支払わないことが多い。
Trading schemes offer the possibility to limit emission allowances to certain reduction targets. However, an oversupply of allowances keeps most ETS at low price levels around $10 with a low impact. This includes the Chinese ETS which started with $7/t{{CO2}} in 2021. One exception is the [[European Union Emission Trading Scheme]] where prices began to rise in 2018. They reached about €80/t{{CO2}} in 2022. This results in additional costs of about €0.04/KWh for coal and €0.02/KWh for gas combustion for electricity, depending on the [[emission intensity]]. Industries which have high energy requirements and high emissions often pay only very low energy taxes, or even none at all.
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これは国家スキームの一部であることが多いが、[[:en:carbon offsets and credits|炭素オフセットとクレジット]]は、国際市場のような自主的な市場の一部となることもできる。特に、アラブ首長国連邦の[[:en:Blue Carbon (company)|Blueカーボン]]社は、炭素クレジットと引き換えに、イギリスに匹敵する面積の土地を保全するために所有権を購入した。
While this is often part of national schemes, [[carbon offsets and credits]] can be part of a voluntary market as well such as on the international market. Notably, the company [[Blue Carbon (company)|Blue Carbon]] of the [[UAE]] has bought ownership over an area equivalent to the United Kingdom to be preserved in return for carbon credits.
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=== 国際協定 ===
=== International agreements ===
{{Main/ja|:en:Politics of climate change}}
{{Main|Politics of climate change}}
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{{See also/ja|:en:Climate change#Policies and politics|:en:Climate change mitigation framework}}
{{See also|Climate change#Policies and politics|Climate change mitigation framework}}
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[[:en:International cooperation|国際協力]]は、気候変動対策にとって「極めて重要な推進力」であると考えられている。ほとんど全ての国が国際連合[[:en:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|気候変動枠組条約]](UNFCCC)の締約国である。UNFCCCの究極の目的は、温室効果ガスの大気中濃度を、気候システムに対する危険な人為的干渉を防ぐ水準で安定させることである。
[[International cooperation]] is considered a ''critical enabler'' for climate action Almost all countries are parties to the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC). The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilise atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.
Although not designed for this purpose, the [[Montreal Protocol]] has benefited climate change mitigation efforts. The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty that has successfully reduced emissions of [[ozone-depleting substance]]s such as [[Chlorofluorocarbon|CFCs]]. These are also greenhouse gases.
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==== パリ協定 ====
==== Paris Agreement ====
[[File:ParisAgreement.svg|thumb|[[Paris Agreement/ja#Parties and signatories|パリ協定の署名国(黄)と締約国(青)]]]]
[[File:ParisAgreement.svg|thumb|[[Paris Agreement#Parties and signatories|Signatories (yellow) and parties (blue)]] to the [[Paris Agreement]]]]
{{See also/ja|:en:Climate change mitigation framework|:en:History of climate change policy and politics|:en:Kyoto Protocol#Chronology|Paris Agreement/ja#Development}}
{{See also|Climate change mitigation framework|History of climate change policy and politics|Kyoto Protocol#Chronology|Paris Agreement#Development}}
歴史的に、気候変動に対処する努力は多国間レベルで行われてきた。これらは、国際連合[[:en:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|気候変動枠組条約]](UNFCCC)の下で、国連におけるコンセンサス決定に達する試みを含んでいる。これは、世界的な公共問題に対してできるだけ多くの国際政府を行動に参加させるという、歴史的に支配的なアプローチである。1987年の[[:en:Montreal Protocol|モントリオール議定書]]は、このアプローチが機能しうるという先例である。しかし、一部の批評家は、UNFCCCのコンセンサスアプローチのみを利用するトップダウン型枠組みは非効果的だと述べている。彼らはボトムアップ型ガバナンスの対案を提示している。同時に、これはUNFCCCへの重点を軽減するだろう。
Historically efforts to deal with climate change have taken place at a multinational level. They involve attempts to reach a consensus decision at the United Nations, under the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC). This is the dominant approach historically of engaging as many international governments as possible in taking action on a worldwide public issue. The [[Montreal Protocol]] in 1987 is a precedent that this approach can work. But some critics say the top-down framework of only utilising the UNFCCC consensus approach is ineffective. They put forward counter-proposals of bottom-up governance. At this same time this would lessen the emphasis on the UNFCCC.
The [[Kyoto Protocol]] to the UNFCCC adopted in 1997 set out legally binding emission reduction commitments for the "Annex 1" countries. The Protocol defined three international policy instruments ("[[Flexibility mechanisms|Flexibility Mechanisms]]") which could be used by the Annex 1 countries to meet their emission reduction commitments. According to Bashmakov, use of these instruments could significantly reduce the costs for Annex 1 countries in meeting their emission reduction commitments.
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2015年に締結された[[Paris Agreement/ja|パリ協定]]は、2020年に期限切れとなった[[Kyoto Protocol|京都議定書]]の後継である。[[:en:List of Kyoto Protocol signatories|京都議定書を批准した国々]]は、二酸化炭素および他の5つの[[温室効果ガス]]の排出量を削減するか、これらのガスの排出量を維持または増加させる場合は[[:en:carbon emissions trading|炭素排出権取引]]を行うことをコミットした。
The Paris Agreement reached in 2015 succeeded the [[Kyoto Protocol]] which expired in 2020. [[List of Kyoto Protocol signatories|Countries that ratified the Kyoto protocol]] committed to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in [[carbon emissions trading]] if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.
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2015年、UNFCCCの「構造化専門家対話」は、「一部の地域や脆弱な生態系では、1.5℃を超える温暖化でも高いリスクが予測される」という結論に達した。最も貧しい国々や太平洋の島嶼国家の強い外交的声と相まって、この専門家の知見は、2015年の[[:en:2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference|パリ気候会議]]の決定を推進する原動力となり、既存の2℃目標に加えてこの1.5℃の長期目標を掲げることになった。
In 2015, the UNFCCC's "structured expert dialogue" came to the conclusion that, "in some regions and vulnerable ecosystems, high risks are projected even for warming above 1.5 °C". Together with the strong diplomatic voice of the poorest countries and the island nations in the Pacific, this expert finding was the driving force leading to the decision of the 2015 [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference|Paris Climate Conference]] to lay down this 1.5 °C long-term target on top of the existing 2 °C goal.
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==障壁{{Anchor|Barriers}}==
== Barriers ==
{{See also/ja|:en:Economic analysis of climate change#Economic barriers to addressing climate change mitigation|:en:Climate change denial|:en:Public opinion on climate change|:en:Sustainability#Barriers}}
{{See also|Economic analysis of climate change#Economic barriers to addressing climate change mitigation|Climate change denial|Public opinion on climate change|Sustainability#Barriers}}
[[File:A typology of climate delay discourses.png|thumb|気候変動緩和策を遅らせることを目的とした言説の類型論]]
[[File:A typology of climate delay discourses.png|thumb|A typology of discourses aimed at delaying climate change mitigation]]
[[File:Distribution of committed CO2 emissions from developed fossil fuel reserves.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|開発済み化石燃料埋蔵量からの確定済み{{CO2}}排出量の分布]]
[[File:Distribution of committed CO2 emissions from developed fossil fuel reserves.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Distribution of committed {{CO2}} emissions from developed fossil fuel reserves]]
There are individual, institutional and market barriers to achieving climate change mitigation. They differ for all the different mitigation options, regions and societies.
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[[:en:Carbon accounting|二酸化炭素除去の会計]]に関する困難は、経済的障壁となりうる。これはBECCS([[:en:bioenergy with carbon capture and storage|バイオエネルギーと炭素回収・貯留]])に当てはまる。企業がとる戦略も障壁となりうるが、脱炭素化を加速させることもできる。
Difficulties with [[Carbon accounting|accounting for carbon dioxide removal]] can act as economic barriers. This would apply to BECCS ([[bioenergy with carbon capture and storage]]). The strategies that companies follow can act as a barrier. But they can also accelerate decarbonisation.
In order to decarbonise societies the state needs to play a predominant role. This is because it requires a massive coordination effort. This strong government role can only work well if there is social cohesion, political stability and trust.
For land-based mitigation options, finance is a major barrier. Other barriers are cultural values, governance, accountability and institutional capacity.
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発展途上国は、緩和に関してさらなる障壁に直面している。
Developing countries face further barriers to mitigation.
* The cost of capital increased in the early 2020s. A lack of available capital and finance is common in developing countries. Together with the absence of regulatory standards, this barrier supports the proliferation of inefficient equipment.
One study estimates that only 0.12% of all funding for climate-related research goes on the social science of climate change mitigation. Vastly more funding goes on natural science studies of climate change. Considerable sums also go on studies of the impact of climate change and adaptation to it.
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<span id="Society_and_culture"></span>
== Society and culture ==
==社会と文化==
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{{Anchor|Society and culture}}
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===コミットメントを[[divestment|売却]]する===
=== Commitments to divest ===
[[File:Climate investment is stalling, but more firms plan to invest, with firms in low-carbon sectors taking the lead.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|気候変動緩和策への投資を計画している企業が増加しており、特に低炭素セクターの企業が主導している。]]
[[File:Climate investment is stalling, but more firms plan to invest, with firms in low-carbon sectors taking the lead.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|More firms plan to invest in climate change mitigation, specifically focusing on low-carbon sectors.]]More than 1000 organisations with investments worth US$8 trillion have made commitments to [[fossil fuel divestment]]. Socially responsible investing funds allow investors to invest in funds that meet high [[environmental, social and corporate governance]] (ESG) standards.
8兆米ドル相当の投資を持つ1000以上の組織が、[[:en:fossil fuel divestment|化石燃料からの投資撤退]]をコミットしている。社会的責任投資ファンドは、投資家が高い[[:en:environmental, social and corporate governance|環境・社会・企業統治]](ESG)基準を満たすファンドに投資することを可能にする。
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=== COVID-19パンデミックの影響 ===
=== Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic ===
{{Main/ja|:en:Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment#Climate change}}
{{Main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment#Climate change}}
The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] led some governments to shift their focus away from climate action, at least temporarily. This obstacle to environmental policy efforts may have contributed to slowed investment in green energy technologies. The economic slowdown resulting from COVID-19 added to this effect.
In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally. Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions. The direct impact of pandemic policies had a negligible long-term impact on climate change.
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==国別の事例{{Anchor|Examples by country}}==
== Examples by country ==
{{Imageright|
{{multiple image
{{multiple image
| total_width = 450
| total_width = 450
| image1 = 20210626 Variwide chart of greenhouse gas emissions per capita by country.svg
| image1 = 20210626 Variwide chart of greenhouse gas emissions per capita by country.svg
| caption1 = Greenhouse gas emissions ''per person'' in the highest-emitting countries. Though China has the greatest total annual carbon dioxide emissions, the U.S. and a few other high-emitting countries exceed China in ''per capita'' emissions.
| image2 = 2021 Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per person versus GDP per person - scatter plot.svg
| image2 = 2021 Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per person versus GDP per person - scatter plot.svg
| caption2 = Richer [[Developed country|(developed)]] countries emit more {{CO2}} per person than poorer [[Developing country|(developing)]] countries. Emissions are roughly proportional to [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per person, though the rate of increase diminishes with average GDP/pp of about $10,000.
{{Main/ja|:en:Climate change in the United States}}
{{Main|Climate change in the United States}}
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{{excerpt/ja|Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States/ja#連邦政府の政策}}
{{excerpt|Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States#Federal Policies}}
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=== 中国 ===
=== China ===
{{main/ja|:en:Greenhouse gas emissions by China|:en:Climate change in China|:en:Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation}}
{{main|Greenhouse gas emissions by China|Climate change in China|Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation}}
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中国は、2030年までに排出量をピークアウトさせ、2060年までに[[:en:net zero|ネットゼロ]]を達成することを公約している。しかし、[[:en:Electricity sector in China#Coal power|中国の石炭火力発電所]]が(炭素回収なしで)2045年以降も稼働し続ける場合、地球温暖化を1.5℃に抑えることは不可能であるとされている。このような状況の中、中国では[[:en:Chinese national carbon trading scheme|中国全国炭素排出権取引スキーム]]が2021年に開始された。
China has committed to peak emissions by 2030 and reach [[net zero]] by 2060. Warming cannot be limited to 1.5 °C if any [[Electricity sector in China#Coal power|coal plants in China]] (without carbon capture) operate after 2045. The [[Chinese national carbon trading scheme]] started in 2021.
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===欧州連合===
=== European Union ===
[[:en:European Commission|欧州委員会]]は、欧州連合が[[:en:Fit for 55|Fit-for-55]]の脱炭素化目標を達成するためには、年間4億7,700万ユーロの追加投資が必要だと試算している。
The [[European Commission]] estimates that an additional €477 million in annual investment is needed for the European Union to meet its [[Fit for 55|Fit-for-55]] decarbonisation goals.
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欧州連合(EU)では、政府主導の政策、特に[[:en:European Green Deal|欧州グリーンディール]]が、グリーンテック分野をベンチャーキャピタル投資の重要な領域として位置づける上で大きな役割を果たしました。その結果、2023年までにEUのグリーンテック分野へのベンチャーキャピタル投資額は米国と同水準に達しました。これは、的を絞った資金援助を通じて、イノベーションを推進し、気候変動緩和に取り組むというEUの強い意志を反映しています。
In the European Union, government-driven policies and the [[European Green Deal]] have helped position greentech (as an example) as a vital area for venture capital investment. By 2023, venture capital in the EU's greentech sector equalled that of the United States, reflecting a concerted effort to drive innovation and mitigate climate change through targeted financial support. The European Green Deal has fostered policies that contributed to a 30% rise in venture capital for greentech companies in the EU from 2021 to 2023, despite a downturn in other sectors during the same period.
While overall venture capital investment in the EU remains about six times lower than in the United States, the greentech sector has closed this gap significantly, attracting substantial funding. Key areas benefitting from increased investments are energy storage, circular economy initiatives, and agricultural technology. This is supported by the EU's ambitious goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030.
植林とは、以前に樹木がなかった場所に木を植えることである。最大4000万ヘクタール(Mha)(6300 x 6300 km)をカバーする新規植林のシナリオは、2100年までに900ギガトン以上の炭素(2300ギガトンCO 2)の累積炭素貯蔵を示唆している。しかし、これらの植林は、その規模があまりに大きいため、ほとんどの自然生態系を排除したり、食料生産を減少させたりすることになるため、積極的な排出削減の実行可能な代替策ではない。一兆本の木キャンペーンはその一例である。しかし、生物多様性の保全も重要であり、例えば、すべての草地が森林への転換に適しているわけではない。草地は、炭素吸収源から炭素排出源にさえ変わりうる。