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{{About/ja|2015年気候協定|西ドイツの地位を決定するための1954年の会議|:en:Paris Agreements|カンボジア・ベトナム戦争を終わらせた条約 | :en:1991 Paris Peace Agreements|さまざまなトピック|:en:List of Paris meetings, agreements and declarations}}
{{About/ja|2015年気候協定|西ドイツの地位を決定するための1954年の会議|:en:Paris Agreements|カンボジア・ベトナム戦争を終わらせた条約 | :en:1991 Paris Peace Agreements|さまざまなトピック|:en:List of Paris meetings, agreements and declarations}}
<noinclude>{{Infobox Treaty
<noinclude>{{Infobox Treaty
| name = [[:en:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|気候変動に関する国際連合枠組条約]]下の[[:en:Paris Agreement|パリ協定]]
| name = [[:en:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|気候変動に関する国際連合枠組条約]]下の[[:en:Paris Agreement|パリ協定]]
| date_signed = {{start date and age|22 April 2016}}
| location_signed = [[:en:Paris|パリ]]、フランス
| location_signed = [[:en:Paris|パリ]]、フランス
| date_sealed =
| date_sealed =
| date_effective ={{start date and age|2016年11月4日}}
| date_effective ={{start date and age| 4 November 2016}}
| condition_effective = [[:en:UNFCCC|UNFCCC]]締約国の55%が批准・加入し、世界の[[:en:greenhouse gas emissions|温室効果ガス排出量]]の55%を占めること
| condition_effective = [[:en:UNFCCC|UNFCCC]]締約国の55%が批准・加入し、世界の[[:en:greenhouse gas emissions|温室効果ガス排出量]]の55%を占めること
| date_expiration =
| date_expiration =
| signatories = 195
| signatories = 195
| parties = 195 ([[:en:List of parties to the Paris Agreement|リスト]])
| parties = 195 ([[:en:List of parties to the Paris Agreement|リスト]])
| depositor = [[:en:Secretary-General of the United Nations|国際連合事務総長]]
| depositor = [[:en:Secretary-General of the United Nations|国際連合事務総長]]
| language =
| language =
| languages = {{hlist | Arabic | Chinese | English | French | Russian | Spanish}}
| languages = {{hlist | Arabic | Chinese | English | French | Russian | Spanish}}
| website =
| website =
| wikisource = Paris Agreement
| wikisource = Paris Agreement
}}</noinclude>
}}</noinclude>
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{{TOC level|3}}
{{TOC level|3}}
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== 目的{{Anchor|Aims}} ==
== Aims ==
協定の目的は、第2条に記載されているように、気候変動の危険性に対してより強力な対応をすることである。[[:en:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|気候変動に関する国際連合枠組条約]]の実施を以下の方法で強化することを目指している。
The aim of the agreement, as described in Article 2, is to have a stronger response to the danger of climate change; it seeks to enhance the implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change through:
{{blockquote|(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster [[climate resilience]] and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production;
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(c) 資金の流れを、低温室効果ガス排出と気候変動に強い開発への道筋と整合させること。}}
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.}}
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各国はさらに、「温室効果ガス排出量の世界的なピークをできるだけ早く」達成することを目指している。
Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible."
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== 進展{{Anchor|Development}} ==
== Development ==
[[File:GUSTAVO-CAMACHO-GONZALEZ-L1060274 (23430273715).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|パリで[[:en:2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference|開催された2015年国連気候変動会議]]における代表団の団長たち]]
[[File:GUSTAVO-CAMACHO-GONZALEZ-L1060274 (23430273715).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Heads of delegations at the [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in Paris]]
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===リードアップ===
===Lead-up===
1992年の[[:en:Earth Summit|地球サミット]]で採択された[[:en:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|国連気候変動枠組条約]](UNFCCC)は、この分野における最初の国際条約の一つである。同条約は、締約国が気候変動に対処するため、[[:en:Conference of Parties|締約国会議]](COP)で定期的に会合を開くべきであると規定している。これは将来の気候協定の基礎を形成する。
The [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UN Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC), adopted at the 1992 [[Earth Summit]] is one of the first international treaties on the topic. It stipulates that parties should meet regularly to address climate change, at the [[Conference of Parties]] or COP. It forms the foundation to future climate agreements.
The [[Kyoto Protocol]], adopted in 1997, regulated [[greenhouse gas]] reductions for a limited set of countries from 2008 to 2012. The protocol was extended until 2020 with the Doha Amendment in 2012. The United States decided not to ratify the Protocol, mainly because of its legally-binding nature. This, and distributional conflict, led to failures of subsequent international climate negotiations. The 2009 negotiations were intended to produce a successor treaty of Kyoto, but the negotiations collapsed and the resulting [[Copenhagen Accord]] was not legally binding and did not get adopted universally.
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この合意は、パリ協定のボトムアップアプローチの枠組みを築いた。UNFCCC事務局長[[:en:Christiana Figueres|クリスティアナ・フィゲレス]]のリーダーシップの下、コペンハーゲンの失敗後、交渉は勢いを盛り返した。[[:en:2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2011年国連気候変動会議]]では、2020年以降の[[:en:climate change mitigation|気候変動緩和]]措置を規定する法的文書を交渉するために[[:en:Durban Platform for Enhanced Action|ダーバン・プラットフォーム]]が設立された。このプラットフォームは、IPCCの第5次評価報告書とUNFCCCの補助機関の作業から情報を得るというマンデートを持っていた。結果として得られる合意は2015年に採択されることになっていた。
The Accord did lay the framework for bottom-up approach of the Paris Agreement. Under the leadership of UNFCCC executive secretary [[Christiana Figueres]], negotiation regained momentum after Copenhagen's failure. During the [[2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference]], the [[Durban Platform for Enhanced Action|Durban Platform]] was established to negotiate a legal instrument governing [[climate change mitigation]] measures from 2020. The platform had a mandate to be informed by the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC and the work of the subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC. The resulting agreement was to be adopted in 2015.
Negotiations in Paris took place over a two-week span, and continued throughout the three final nights. Various drafts and proposals had been debated and streamlined in the preceding year. According to one commentator two ways in which the French increased the likelihood of success were: firstly to ensure that [[Intended Nationally Determined Contributions]] (INDCs) were completed before the start of the negotiations, and secondly to invite leaders just for the beginning of the conference.
The negotiations almost failed because of a single word when the US legal team realized at the last minute that "shall" had been approved, rather than "should", meaning that developed countries would have been legally obliged to cut emissions: the French solved the problem by changing it as a "typographical error". At the conclusion of COP21 (the 21st meeting of the Conference of the Parties), on 12 December 2015, the final wording of the Paris Agreement was adopted by consensus by the 195 UNFCCC participating member states and the European Union. [[Nicaragua]] indicated they had wanted to object to the adoption as they denounced the weakness of the agreement, but were not given a chance. In the agreement the members promised to [[Low-carbon economy|reduce their carbon output]] "as soon as possible" and to do their best to keep global warming "[[2 degree climate target|to well below 2 degrees C]]" (3.6 °F).
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=== 署名と発効 ===
=== Signing and entry into force ===
パリ協定は、2016年4月22日から2017年4月21日まで、ニューヨークの[[:en:UN Headquarters|国連本部]]で、UNFCCC(条約)の締約国である国家および地域経済統合機関による署名のために開放された。協定への署名は[[ratification|批准]]への第一歩であるが、署名せずに協定に[[:en:Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties#Signature, ratification and accession|加入]]することも可能である。これにより、締約国は条約の目標に反する行為を行わない義務を負う。2016年4月1日、[[:en:global emissions|世界の排出量]]のほぼ40%を占める[[:en:United States|米国]]と[[:en:China|中国]]は、[[:en:Paris Climate Agreement|パリ気候協定]]に署名することを確認した。協定は、署名のために開放された初日に175の締約国(174の国家と[[:en:European Union|欧州連合]])によって署名された。2021年3月現在、194の国家と[[:en:European Union|欧州連合]]が協定に署名している。
The Paris Agreement was open for signature by states and regional economic integration organizations that are parties to the UNFCCC (the convention) from 22 April 2016 to 21 April 2017 at the UN Headquarters in New York. Signing of the agreement is the first step towards [[ratification]], but it is possible to [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties#Signature, ratification and accession|accede]] to the agreement without signing. It binds parties to not act in contravention of the goal of the treaty. On 1 April 2016, the United States and China, which represent almost 40% of global emissions confirmed they would sign the Paris Climate Agreement. The agreement was signed by 175 parties (174 states and the European Union) on the first day it was opened for signature. As of March 2021, 194 states and the European Union have signed the agreement.
[[File:Secretary Kerry Holds Granddaughter Dobbs-Higginson on Lap While Signing COP21 Climate Change Agreement at UN General Assembly Hall in New York (26512345421).jpg|thumb|left|[[:en:United Nations General Assembly Hall|国連総会議場]]で[[:en:John Kerry|ジョン・ケリー]]が[[:en:United States|米国]]を代表してCOP21気候変動協定に署名する様子]]
[[File:Secretary Kerry Holds Granddaughter Dobbs-Higginson on Lap While Signing COP21 Climate Change Agreement at UN General Assembly Hall in New York (26512345421).jpg|thumb|left|Signing by [[John Kerry]] in [[United Nations General Assembly Hall]] for the United States]]
本協定は、[[:en:List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions|世界の温室効果ガス排出量]]の少なくとも55%(2015年に作成されたリストによる)を排出する55カ国が批准またはその他の方法で条約に参加した場合に発効する(したがって完全に効力を持つ)。条約に参加する代替方法は、受諾、承認、または加入である。最初の2つは通常、国家元首が国を条約に拘束する必要がない場合に使用され、後者は通常、国が既に発効している条約に参加する場合に発生する。[[:en:European Union|欧州連合]]による批准後、本協定は2016年11月4日に発効するために十分な締約国を獲得した。
The agreement would enter into force (and thus become fully effective) if 55 countries that produce at least 55% of [[List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions|the world's greenhouse gas emissions]] (according to a list produced in 2015) ratify or otherwise join the treaty. Alternative ways to join the treaty are acceptance, approval or accession. The first two are typically used when a head of state is not necessary to bind a country to a treaty, whereas the latter typically happens when a country joins a treaty already in force. After ratification by the European Union, the agreement obtained enough parties to enter into effect on 4 November 2016.
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[[:en:European Union|EU]]とその加盟国は両者とも、パリ協定の批准に対して個別に責任を負う。[[:en:European Union|EU]]とその28の加盟国が同時に批准することで、厳密に他方に属する義務を負わないようにすることを強く望む声が報告されており、[[:en:European Union|EU]]全体の削減目標に対する各加盟国の分担をめぐる意見の相違や、英国の[[:en:Brexit|EU離脱投票]]がパリ協定を遅らせるのではないかという懸念がオブザーバーからあった。しかし、[[:en:European Union|EU]]は2016年10月5日に、7つの[[:en:EU member states|EU加盟国]]とともに批准書を寄託した。
Both the EU and its member states are individually responsible for ratifying the Paris Agreement. A strong preference was reported that the EU and its 28 member states ratify at the same time to ensure that they do not engage themselves to fulfilling obligations that strictly belong to the other, and there were fears by observers that disagreement over each member state's share of the EU-wide reduction target, as well as Britain's [[Brexit|vote to leave the EU]] might delay the Paris pact. However, the EU deposited its instruments of ratification on 5 October 2016, along with seven EU member states.
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== 当事者{{Anchor|Parties}} ==
== Parties ==
{{main/ja|:en:List of parties to the Paris Agreement}}
{{main|List of parties to the Paris Agreement}}
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi greeting the President of Brazil, Ms. Dilma Rousseff, during Group Photo Session, at COP21 Summit, in Paris, France on November 30, 2015.jpg|thumb|2015年11月30日のCOP21サミットで、[[:en:Prime Minister of India|インド首相]][[:en:Narendra Modi|ナレンドラ・モディ]]が[[:en:President of Brazil|ブラジル大統領]][[:en:Dilma Rousseff|ジルマ・ルセフ]]に挨拶している。背景には[[:en:Prime Minister of Portugal|ポルトガル首相]][[:en:António Costa|アントニオ・コスタ]]。]]
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi greeting the President of Brazil, Ms. Dilma Rousseff, during Group Photo Session, at COP21 Summit, in Paris, France on November 30, 2015.jpg|thumb|The [[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Minister]], [[Narendra Modi]] greeting the [[President of Brazil]], [[Dilma Rousseff]], in background [[Prime Minister of Portugal|Portuguese Prime Minister]] [[António Costa]] at the COP21 Summit on 30 November 2015]]
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=== 批准または加入した国 ===
=== Countries that have ratified or acceded ===
[[:en:European Union|EU]]と194の国々が協定を批准または加入しており、これは[[:en:greenhouse gas emissions|温室効果ガス排出量]]の98%以上を占める。批准していない国は、[[:en:Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa#Greenhouse gas emissions|中東の温室効果ガス排出国]]の一部であり、世界全体の2%を占める[[:en:Climate change in Iran|イラン]]が最大である。[[:en:Libya|リビア]]と[[:en:Yemen|イエメン]]も[[:en:List of parties to the Paris Agreement#Signatories|協定を批准していない]]。[[:en:Eritrea|エリトリア]]は、2023年2月7日に協定を批准した最新の国である。
The EU and 194 states, totalling over 98% of [[greenhouse gas emissions]], have ratified or acceded to the agreement. The only countries which have not ratified are some [[Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa#Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emitters in the Middle East]]: Iran with 2% of the world total being the largest. [[Libya]] and [[Yemen]] [[List of parties to the Paris Agreement#Signatories|have also not ratified the agreement]]. [[Eritrea]] is the latest country to ratify the agreement, on 7 February 2023.
Article 28 enables parties to withdraw from the agreement after sending a withdrawal notification to the [[depositary]]. Notice can be given no earlier than three years after the agreement goes into force for the country. Withdrawal is effective one year after the depositary is notified.
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=== アメリカ合衆国の脱退、再加入、再脱退 ===
=== United States withdrawal, readmittance, and rewithdrawal ===
{{Main/ja|:en:United States and the Paris Agreement}}
{{Main|United States and the Paris Agreement}}
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2017年8月4日、[[:en:First presidency of Donald Trump|トランプ政権]]は、[[:en:United States|米国]]が、[[:en:China|中国]]に次ぐ世界第2位の温室効果ガス排出国として、[[:en:Paris Agreement|パリ協定]]から脱退する意向であることを[[:en:United Nations|国連]]に正式に通知した。[[:en:U.S. government|米国政府]]は、[[:en:United Nations Secretary-General|国連事務総長]]に通知書を寄託し、1年後の2020年11月4日に正式に脱退した。
On 4 August 2017, the [[First presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]] delivered an official notice to the [[United Nations]] that the United States, the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases after China, intended to withdraw from the Paris Agreement as soon as it was eligible to do so. The U.S. government deposited the notification with the secretary-general of the United Nations and officially withdrew one year later on 4 November 2020.
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[[:en:Joe Biden|ジョー・バイデン]]大統領は、就任初日である2021年1月20日に、[[:en:United States|米国]]をパリ協定に再加入させるための大統領令に署名した。第21条3項で定められた30日間の期間を経て、[[:en:U.S.|米国]]は協定に再加入した。[[:en:U.S. Special Presidential Envoy for Climate|米国気候変動特使]][[:en:John Kerry|ジョン・ケリー]]はオンラインイベントに参加し、[[United States|米国]]はパリプロセスの正当性を「取り戻す」と述べた。[[:en:Secretary-General of the United Nations|国連事務総長]][[:en:António Guterres|アントニオ・グテーレス]]は、[[:en:United States|米国]]の復帰を「全体を弱めていた失われた環」を回復するものとして歓迎した。
President [[Joe Biden]] signed an executive order on his first day in office, 20 January 2021, to re-admit the United States into the Paris Agreement. Following the 30-day period set by Article 21.3, the U.S. was readmitted to the agreement. [[U.S. Special Presidential Envoy for Climate|United States climate envoy]] [[John Kerry]] took part in virtual events, saying that the US would "earn its way back" into legitimacy in the Paris process. [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations secretary-general]] [[António Guterres]] welcomed the return of the United States as restoring the "missing link that weakened the whole".
The Paris Agreement is a short agreement with 16 introductory paragraphs and 29 articles. It contains procedural articles (covering, for example, the criteria for its entry into force) and operational articles (covering, for example, mitigation, [[Climate change adaptation|adaptation]] and finance). It is a binding agreement, but many of its articles do not imply obligations or are there to facilitate international collaboration. It covers most greenhouse gas emissions, but does not apply to international [[aviation]] and [[Freight transport|shipping]], which fall under the responsibility of the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] and the [[International Maritime Organization]], respectively.
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パリ協定は、その中核となる[[:en:pledge and review|約束と検討]]メカニズムが、目標をトップダウンで課すのではなく、各国が独自の[[:en:nationally determined contributions|自国が決定する貢献]](NDCs)を設定することを可能にするため、ボトムアップ構造を持つと記述されている。法的拘束力を持つコミットメント目標を設定する前身の[[:en:Kyoto Protocol|京都議定書]]とは異なり、パリ協定は[[:en:Consensus decision-making|コンセンサス形成]]を重視し、自発的で国が決定する目標を可能にしている。したがって、具体的な気候目標は、法的に義務付けられているというよりも、政治的に奨励されている。これらの目標の報告と検討を規定するプロセスのみが[[:en:international law|国際法]]の下で義務付けられている。この構造は、特に[[:en:United States|米国]]にとって注目に値する。なぜなら、法的な緩和目標や資金目標がないため、この協定は「条約ではなく行政協定」とみなされているからである。1992年のUNFCCC条約は[[:en:U.S. Senate|米国上院]]の同意を得ているため、この新しい協定はさらなる立法を必要としない。
The Paris Agreement has been described as having a bottom-up structure, as its core [[pledge and review]] mechanism allows nations to set their own nationally determined contributions (NDCs), rather than having targets imposed top down. Unlike its predecessor, the Kyoto Protocol, which sets commitment targets that have legal force, the Paris Agreement, with its emphasis on [[Consensus decision-making|consensus building]], allows for voluntary and nationally determined targets. The specific climate goals are thus politically encouraged, rather than legally bound. Only the processes governing the reporting and review of these goals are mandated under [[international law]]. This structure is especially notable for the United States{{snd}}because there are no legal mitigation or finance targets, the agreement is considered an "executive agreement rather than a treaty". Because the UNFCCC treaty of 1992 received the consent of the US Senate, this new agreement does not require further legislation.
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パリ協定と[[:en:Kyoto Protocol|京都議定書]]のもう一つの重要な違いは、その範囲である。[[:en:Kyoto Protocol|京都議定書]]は、[[:en:List of parties to the Kyoto Protocol|附属書I国]]、つまり気候変動に対する歴史的責任を持つ富裕国と非附属書I国を区別していたが、パリ協定では、すべての締約国が排出削減計画を提出することを求められるため、この区分は曖昧になっている。パリ協定は、[[:en:Common But Differentiated Responsibilities|共通だが差異ある責任とそれぞれの能力]]の原則(異なる国家が気候変動対策に対して異なる能力と義務を持つことを認識すること)を依然として強調しているが、先進国と途上国の間の具体的な区分は設けていない。
Another key difference between the Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol is their scope. The Kyoto Protocol differentiated between [[List of parties to the Kyoto Protocol|Annex-I]], richer countries with a historical responsibility for climate change, and non-Annex-I countries, but this division is blurred in the Paris Agreement as all parties are required to submit emissions reduction plans. The Paris Agreement still emphasizes the principle of [[Common But Differentiated Responsibilities|Common but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capabilities]]{{snd}}the acknowledgement that different nations have different capacities and duties to climate action{{snd}}but it does not provide a specific division between developed and developing nations.
[[File:Probability_that_countries_achieve_their_Paris_Agreement_Goals_according_to_their_nationally_determined_contributions_(NDCs).webp|thumb|upright=1.5|Probability that countries achieve their Paris Agreement Goals according to their [[nationally determined contribution]]s as of 2021 (NDCs)]]
Countries determine themselves what contributions they should make to achieve the aims of the treaty. As such, these plans are called ''[[nationally determined contributions]]'' (NDCs). Article 3 requires NDCs to be "ambitious efforts" towards "achieving the purpose of this Agreement" and to "represent a progression over time". The contributions should be set every five years and are to be registered by the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Secretariat|UNFCCC Secretariat]]. Each further ambition should be more ambitious than the previous one, known as the principle of ''progression''. Countries can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions. The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the [[2015 Climate Change Conference]] are converted to NDCs when a country ratifies the Paris Agreement, unless they submit an update.
The Paris Agreement does not prescribe the exact nature of the NDCs. At a minimum, they should contain mitigation provisions, but they may also contain pledges on adaptation, finance, [[technology transfer]], [[capacity building]] and transparency. Some of the pledges in the NDCs are unconditional, but others are conditional on outside factors such as getting finance and technical support, the ambition from other parties or the details of rules of the Paris Agreement that are yet to be set. Most NDCs have a conditional component.
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NDCs自体には拘束力はないが、それらを取り巻く手続きには拘束力がある。これらの手続きには、連続するNDCを作成、伝達、維持する義務、5年ごとに新しいNDCを設定する義務、および実施に関する情報を提供する義務が含まれる。国に特定の期日までにNDC目標を設定する、または目標を達成することを強制するメカニズムはない。[[:en:name and shame|非難と公表]]システム、あるいは元国連気候変動担当事務次長補[[:en:János Pásztor (diplomat)|ヤノシュ・パストル]]が述べたように、「非難と奨励」計画のみが存在する。
While the NDCs themselves are not binding, the procedures surrounding them are. These procedures include the obligation to prepare, communicate and maintain successive NDCs, set a new one every five years, and provide information about the implementation. There is no mechanism to force a country to set a NDC target by a specific date, nor to meet their targets. There will be only a [[name and shame]] system or as [[János Pásztor (diplomat)|János Pásztor]], the former U.N. assistant secretary-general on climate change, stated, a "name and encourage" plan.
Under the Paris Agreement, countries must increase their ambition every five years. To facilitate this, the agreement established the [[Global stocktake|Global Stocktake]], which assesses progress, with the first evaluation in 2023. The outcome is to be used as input for new nationally determined contributions of parties. The [[Talanoa Dialogue]] in 2018 was seen as an example for the global stocktake. After a year of discussion, a report was published and there was a call for action, but countries did not increase ambition afterwards.
The stocktake works as part of the Paris Agreement's effort to create a "ratcheting up" of ambition in emissions cuts. Because analysts agreed in 2014 that the NDCs would not limit rising temperatures below 2 °C, the global stocktake reconvenes parties to assess how their new NDCs must evolve so that they continually reflect a country's "highest possible ambition". While ratcheting up the ambition of NDCs is a major aim of the global stocktake, it assesses efforts beyond mitigation. The five-year reviews will also evaluate adaptation, [[climate finance]] provisions, and technology development and transfer.
On November 30, 2023, the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28) commenced in Dubai with renewed calls for amplified efforts towards climate action.
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=== 緩和策と炭素市場 ===
=== Mitigation provisions and carbon markets ===
第6条は、パリ協定の主要な規定の一部を含むものとして注目されている。大まかに言えば、締約国が自国の[[:en:carbon emissions reductions|炭素排出量削減]]を達成するためにとることができる[[:en:Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement|協力的なアプローチ]]の概要を述べている。そうすることで、パリ協定をグローバルな炭素市場の枠組みとして確立するのに役立っている。第6条は、協定の唯一の重要な未解決部分である。[[:en:2019 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2019年の交渉]]では結果が出なかった。この問題は[[:en:2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference|グラスゴーでの2021年COP26]]で解決された。「対応調整」というメカニズムが、排出オフセットの二重計上を避けるために確立された。
Article 6 has been flagged as containing some of the key provisions of the Paris Agreement. Broadly, it outlines the [[Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement|cooperative approaches]] that parties can take in achieving their nationally determined carbon emissions reductions. In doing so, it helps establish the Paris Agreement as a framework for a global carbon market. Article 6 is the only important part of the agreement yet to be resolved; [[2019 United Nations Climate Change Conference|negotiations in 2019]] did not produce a result. The topic was settled during the [[2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2021 COP26 in Glasgow]]. A mechanism, the "corresponding adjustment", was established to avoid double counting for emission offsets.
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==== 炭素取引システムとITMOの連携 ====
==== Linkage of carbon trading systems and ITMOs ====
[[:en:Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement#Article 6.2: Cooperative Approaches|第6条2項]]および6条3項は、[[:en:Internationally transferred mitigation outcomes|国際的に移転された緩和成果]](ITMOs)を規定する枠組みを確立している。本協定は、炭素会計および取引システムにおいて、自国外での排出量削減を自国のNDCに充当する締約国の権利を認めている。この規定は、炭素排出量取引システムの「連携」を必要とする。測定された排出量削減は「二重計上」を避ける必要があるため、移転された緩和成果は、一方の締約国にとっては排出単位の増加として、他方の締約国にとっては排出単位の減少として記録されなければならない。これは「対応調整」と呼ばれる。NDCおよび国内炭素取引スキームは異質であるため、ITMOはUNFCCCの後援の下でグローバルな連携のための形式を提供する。したがって、この規定はまた、各国に排出量管理システムを採用するよう圧力をかける。つまり、国がNDCを達成するために費用対効果の高い協力的なアプローチを使用したい場合、自国の経済のために炭素単位を監視する必要がある。
[[Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement#Article 6.2: Cooperative Approaches|Paragraphs 6.2]] and 6.3 establish a framework to govern the [[Internationally transferred mitigation outcomes|international transfer of mitigation outcomes]] (ITMOs). The agreement recognizes the rights of parties to use emissions reductions outside of their own borders toward their NDC, in a system of carbon accounting and trading. This provision requires the "linkage" of carbon emissions trading systems{{snd}}because measured emissions reductions must avoid "double counting", transferred mitigation outcomes must be recorded as a gain of emission units for one party and a reduction of emission units for the other, a so-called "corresponding adjustment". Because the NDCs, and domestic carbon trading schemes, are heterogeneous, the ITMOs will provide a format for global linkage under the auspices of the UNFCCC. The provision thus also creates a pressure for countries to adopt emissions management systems{{snd}}if a country wants to use more cost-effective cooperative approaches to achieve their NDCs, they will have to monitor carbon units for their economies.
So far, as the only country who wants to buy ITMOs, Switzerland has signed deals regarding ITMO tradings with Peru, Ghana, Senegal, Georgia, Dominica, Vanuatu, Thailand and Ukraine.
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Country !! Sign date !! Source
! 国 !! 署名日 !! 出典
|-
|-
| Peru || 20 October 2020 ||
| ペルー || 2020年10月20日 ||
|-
|-
| Ghana || 23 November 2020 ||
| ガーナ || 2020年11月23日 ||
|-
|-
| Senegal || 6 July 2021 ||
| セネガル || 2021年7月6日 ||
|-
|-
| Georgia|| 18 October 2021 ||
| グルジア || 2021年10月18日 ||
|-
|-
| Dominica || 11 November 2021 ||
| ドミニカ || 2021年11月11日 ||
|-
|-
| Vanuatu || 11 November 2021 ||
| バヌアツ || 2021年11月11日 ||
|-
|-
| Thailand || 24 June 2022 ||
| タイ || 2022年6月24日 ||
|-
|-
| Ukraine || 4 July 2022 ||
| ウクライナ || 2022年7月4日 ||
|}
|}
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==== 持続可能な開発メカニズム ====
==== Sustainable Development Mechanism ====
[[:en:Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement#Article 6.4: Mechanism to promote climate action and support sustainable development|第6条4項]]から6条7項は、「温室効果ガスの緩和に貢献し、持続可能な開発を支援する」メカニズムを確立している。現時点ではこのメカニズムに公式名称はないが、持続可能な開発メカニズム(SDM)と呼ばれている。SDMは、[[:en:Clean Development Mechanism|クリーン開発メカニズム]]の後継と見なされている。クリーン開発メカニズムは、[[:en:Kyoto Protocol|京都議定書]]の下で締約国が協力して排出量削減を追求できるメカニズムであった。
[[Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement#Article 6.4: Mechanism to promote climate action and support sustainable development|Paragraphs 6.4]]–6.7 establish a mechanism "to contribute to the mitigation of greenhouse gases and support sustainable development". Though there is no official name for the mechanism as yet, it has been referred to as the Sustainable Development Mechanism or SDM. The SDM is considered to be the successor to the [[Clean Development Mechanism]], a mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol by which parties could collaboratively pursue emissions reductions.
The SDM is set to largely resemble the Clean Development Mechanism, with the dual goal of contributing to global GHG emissions reductions and supporting sustainable development. Though the structure and processes governing the SDM are not yet determined, certain similarities and differences from the Clean Development Mechanisms have become clear. A key difference is that the SDM will be available to all parties as opposed to only [[Annex I|Annex-I parties]], making it much wider in scope.
The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol was criticized for failing to produce either meaningful emissions reductions or sustainable development benefits in most instances. and for its complexity. It is possible that the SDM will see difficulties.
[[Climate change adaptation]] received more focus in Paris negotiations than in previous climate treaties. Collective, long-term adaptation goals are included in the agreement, and countries must report on their adaptation actions, making it a parallel component with mitigation The adaptation goals focus on enhancing [[adaptive capacity]], increasing [[Climate resilience|resilience]], and limiting vulnerability.
The Paris Agreement is implemented via national policy. It would involve improvements to [[Energy conservation|energy efficiency]] to decrease the [[energy intensity]] of the global economy. Implementation also requires fossil fuel burning to be cut back and the share of [[sustainable energy]] to grow rapidly. Emissions are being reduced rapidly in the electricity sector, but not in the building, transport and heating sector. Some industries are difficult to decarbonize, and for those [[carbon dioxide removal]] may be necessary to achieve [[Net zero|net zero emissions]]. In a report released in 2022 the IPCC promotes the need for innovation and technological changes in combination with consumption and production behavioral changes to meet Paris Agreement objectives.
To stay below 1.5{{Nbsp}}°C of global warming, emissions need to be cut by roughly 50% by 2030. This is an aggregate of each country's [[nationally determined contribution]]s. By mid-century, {{CO2}} emissions would need to be cut to zero, and total greenhouse gases would need to be [[net zero]] just after mid-century.
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協定の実施には障壁がある。一部の国は、脱炭素化への投資に必要な資金を誘致するのに苦労している。気候変動資金は断片化されており、投資をさらに複雑にしている。もう一つの問題は、政策を実施するための政府や他の機関における能力の不足である。[[:en:Clean technology|クリーン技術]]と[[:en:knowledge transfer|知識]]は、しばしばそれを必要とする国や場所に伝えられない。2020年12月、COP21の元議長である[[:en:Laurent Fabius|ローラン・ファビウス]]は、パリ協定の実施が[[:en:Global Pact for the Environment|環境に関するグローバル協定]]の採択によって強化され得ると主張した。後者は、国家、個人、企業の環境上の権利と義務を定義するものである。
There are barriers to implementing the agreement. Some countries struggle to attract the finance necessary for investments in decarbonization. Climate finance is fragmented, further complicating investments. Another issue is the lack of capabilities in government and other institutions to implement policy. [[Clean technology]] and [[knowledge transfer|knowledge]] is often not transferred to countries or places that need it. In December 2020, the former chair of the COP 21, [[Laurent Fabius]], argued that the implementation of the Paris Agreement could be bolstered by the adoption of a [[Global Pact for the Environment]]. The latter would define the environmental rights and duties of states, individuals and businesses.
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<span id="Specific_topics_of_concern"></span>
== Specific topics of concern ==
== 特に関心のあるトピック{{Anchor|Specific topics of concern}} ==
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=== 有効性 ===
=== Effectiveness ===
[[File:Greenhouse gas emission scenarios 01.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|世界の温室効果ガス排出シナリオ。すべての国が現在のパリ協定の公約を達成したとしても、2100年までに平均気温上昇は協定で設定された最大2℃の目標を超える。]]
[[File:Greenhouse gas emission scenarios 01.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Scenarios of global greenhouse gas emissions. If all countries achieve their current Paris Agreement pledges, average warming by 2100 would still exceed the maximum 2°C target set by the agreement.]]
The effectiveness of the Paris Agreement to reach its climate goals is under debate, with most experts saying it is insufficient for its more ambitious goal of keeping global temperature rise under 1.5 °C. Many of the exact provisions of the Paris Agreement have yet to be straightened out, so that it may be too early to judge effectiveness. According to the 2020 United Nations Environment Programme ([[UNEP]]), with the current climate commitments of the Paris Agreement, global mean temperatures will likely rise by more than 3 °C by the end of the 21st century. Newer [[net zero]] commitments were not included in the [[Nationally determined contribution|Nationally Determined Contributions]], and may bring down temperatures by a further 0.5 °C.
With initial pledges by countries inadequate, faster and more expensive future mitigation would be needed to still reach the targets. Furthermore, there is a gap between pledges by countries in their NDCs and implementation of these pledges; one third of the emission gap between the lowest-costs and actual reductions in emissions would be closed by implementing existing pledges. A pair of studies in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' found that as of 2017 none of the major industrialized nations were implementing the policies they had pledged, and none met their pledged emission reduction targets, and even if they had, the sum of all member pledges (as of 2016) would not keep global temperature rise "well below 2°C".
In 2021, a study using a [[Stochastic simulation|probabilistic]] model concluded that the rates of emissions reductions would have to increase by 80% beyond [[#Nationally determined contributions|NDCs]] to likely meet the 2 °C upper target of the Paris Agreement, that the probabilities of major emitters meeting their NDCs without such an increase is very low. It estimated that with current trends the probability of staying below 2 °C of warming is 5–26% if NDCs were met and continued post-2030 by all signatories.
{{As of|2020}}, there is little scientific literature on the topics of the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement on [[capacity building]] and adaptation, even though they feature prominently in the Paris Agreement. The literature available is mostly mixed in its conclusions about loss and damage, and adaptation.
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ストックテイク報告書によると、協定は大きな効果を発揮している。2010年には2100年までに予想される気温上昇は3.7〜4.8℃であったが、[[:en:2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference|COP27]]では2.4〜2.6℃となり、すべての国が長期的な公約を果たすならば1.7〜2.1℃になる。それにもかかわらず、世界は協定の目標である気温上昇を1.5℃に抑えることから依然として大きくかけ離れている。これを達成するためには、排出量は2025年までにピークに達しなければならない。最近の研究では、2024年に平均気温が1.5℃を上回る最初の単一の暦年となったことから、地球はすでに平均温暖化が1.5℃に達する20年間の期間に入った可能性が高いことが示されている。さらに、世界の平均気温は2024年にすでに1.5℃の水準を超えた可能性があると示唆されている。
According to the stocktake report, the agreement has a significant effect: while in 2010 the expected temperature rise by 2100 was 3.7–4.8 °C, at [[2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference|COP 27]] it was 2.4–2.6 °C and if all countries will fulfill their long-term pledges even 1.7–2.1 °C. Despite it, the world is still very far from reaching the aim of the agreement: limiting temperature rise to 1.5 degrees. For doing this, emissions must peak by 2025.< Recent work{{snd}}on the basis of the first single calendar year in 2024 with an average temperature above 1.5 degrees Celsius{{snd}}indicates that most probably Earth has already entered the 20-year period that will reach an average warming of 1.5 degrees Celsius. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the global mean temperature may have already passed the 1.5 degrees Celsius level in 2024.
The Paris Agreement also seemed to have influenced the focus of the following IPCC reports. Before the Paris Agreement was settled, the IPCC assessment reports focused roughly in equal proportions on temperatures above and below 2 °C. However, in the 6th assessment report, after the Paris Engagement was reached, slightly less than 20% of the temperature mentions are above 2 °C and almost 50% focus on 1.5 °C alone.
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=== 要件の達成 ===
=== Fulfillment of requirements ===
[[File:Total CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|2000年以降、中国と世界の他の地域のCO<sub>2</sub>排出量の増加は、米国とヨーロッパの排出量を上回っている。]]
[[File:Total CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Since 2000, rising {{CO2}} emissions in China and the rest of the world have surpassed the output of the United States and Europe.]]
[[File:Per Capita CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|一人当たりのCO<sub>2</sub>排出量では、米国は他の主要地域よりもはるかに速いペースでCO<sub>2</sub>を排出している。]]
[[File:Per Capita CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Per person, the United States generates {{CO2}} at a far faster rate than other primary regions.]]
In September 2021, the Climate Action Tracker estimated that, with current policies, global emissions will double above the 2030 target level. The gap is 20–23 Gt CO2e. Countries such as Iran, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Thailand have been criticised of not doing enough to meet the requirements of the agreement, and are on track to achieve a 4 °C warming of the planet if current policies are implemented more widely. Of the world's countries, only the Gambia's emissions are at the level required by the Paris Agreement. Models predicted that if the necessary measures were not implemented by autumn 2021, the global average temperature would rise by 2.9 °C. With the implementation of the Paris Agreement pledges, the average temperature would rise by 2.4 °C, and with every zero emission target reached, the average temperature would rise by 2.0 °C.
The ''Production Gap 2021'' report states that world governments still plan to produce 110% more [[fossil fuels]] in 2030 (including 240% more coal, 57% more oil and 71% more gas) than the 1.5 degree limit.
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2023年9月、協定の実施に関する最初のグローバル・ストックテイク報告書が発表された。報告書によると、予想に反して、協定は大きな効果を発揮している。2010年には2100年までに予想される気温上昇は3.7〜4.8℃であったが、[[:en:2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference|COP27]]では2.4〜2.6℃となり、すべての国が長期的な公約を果たすならば1.7〜2.1℃になる。しかし、世界は温暖化を1.5℃に抑えることから依然として大きくかけ離れている。この目標を達成するためには、世界の排出量は2025年までにピークに達しなければならないが、一部の国では排出量がピークに達しているものの、世界の排出量はまだピークに達していない。
In September 2023 the first global stocktake report about the implementation of the agreement was released. According to the report contrarily to expectations, the agreement has a significant effect: while in 2010 the expected temperature rise by 2100 was 3.7–4.8 °C, at [[2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference|COP 27]] it was 2.4–2.6 °C and if all countries will fulfill their long-term pledges 1.7–2.1 °C. However, the world remains very far from limiting warming to 1.5 degrees. To meet this benchmark, global emissions must peak by 2025, and although emissions have peaked in some countries, global emissions have not.
[[File:GCF Signed Pledges 2018.svg|thumb|alt=米国、様々なヨーロッパ諸国、日本がグリーン気候基金に最も貢献したことを示す地図|2018年のグリーン気候基金への誓約。数字は年間署名済み誓約額を表す。|upright=1.4]]
[[File:GCF Signed Pledges 2018.svg|thumb|alt=Map showing that the US, various European countries and Japan contributed most the Green Climate Fund|Pledges to the Green Climate Fund in 2018. The numbers represent the signed pledges per year.|upright=1.4]]
Developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in [[climate finance]] by 2020, and agreed to continue mobilising finance at this level until 2025. The money is for supporting mitigation and adaptation in developing countries. It includes finance for the [[Green Climate Fund]], which is a part of the UNFCCC, but also for a variety of other public and private pledges. The Paris Agreement states that a new commitment of at least $100 billion per year has to be agreed before 2025.
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緩和と適応の両方とも気候資金の増加を必要とするが、適応は通常、より低いレベルの支援しか受けておらず、民間部門からの行動も少ない。OECDの報告書によると、2013年から2014年には、世界の気候資金の16%が気候適応に充てられ、緩和には77%が充てられた。パリ協定は、適応と緩和の間の気候資金のバランスを求め、特に[[:en:Least developed countries|後発開発途上国]]や[[:en:Small Island Developing States|小島嶼開発途上国]]を含む、気候変動の影響に最も脆弱な締約国に対する適応支援の増加を求めた。また、協定は、適応策が公共部門からの投資が少ないため、公的助成金の重要性を締約国に喚起している。
Though both mitigation and adaptation require increased climate financing, adaptation has typically received lower levels of support and has mobilized less action from the private sector. A report by the OECD found that 16% of global climate finance was directed toward climate adaptation in 2013–2014, compared to 77% for mitigation. The Paris Agreement called for a balance of climate finance between adaptation and mitigation, and specifically increasing adaptation support for parties most vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including [[Least developed countries]] and [[Small Island Developing States]]. The agreement also reminds parties of the importance of public grants, because adaptation measures receive less investment from the public sector.
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2015年、20の[[:en:Multilateral Development Banks|多国間開発銀行]](MDBs)と国際開発金融クラブのメンバーは、投資における広範な気候変動対策を維持するための5つの原則を導入した。すなわち、気候戦略へのコミットメント、気候リスクの管理、気候スマート目標の推進、気候パフォーマンスの改善、および自らの行動の説明責任である。2020年1月現在、これらの原則を遵守するメンバーの数は44に増加した。
In 2015, twenty Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) and members of the International Development Finance Club introduced five principles to maintain widespread climate action in their investments: commitment to climate strategies, managing climate risks, promoting climate smart objectives, improving climate performance and accounting for their own actions. As of January 2020, the number of members abiding by these principles grew to 44.
Some specific outcomes of the elevated attention to adaptation financing in Paris include the [[G7 countries]]' announcement to provide US$420 million for [[climate risk insurance]], and the launching of a Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems (CREWS) Initiative. The largest donors to multilateral climate funds, which includes the Green Climate Fund, are the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, France and Sweden.
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=== 損失と損害 ===
=== Loss and damage ===
{{Main/ja|:en:Loss and damage (climate change)}}
{{Main|Loss and damage (climate change)}}
気候変動のあらゆる影響に適応することは不可能である。最適な適応の場合でも、深刻な損害が発生する可能性がある。パリ協定は、この種の[[:en:Loss and damage (climate change)|損失と損害]]を認識している。損失と損害は、[[:en:Extreme weather|異常気象]]イベント、または低地島嶼国にとっての[[:en:sea level rise|海面上昇]]による土地の喪失などの緩慢な進行イベントから生じる可能性がある。以前の気候協定は、損失と損害を適応のサブセットとして分類していた。
It is not possible to adapt to all effects of climate change: even in the case of optimal adaptation, severe damage may still occur. The Paris Agreement recognizes [[Loss and damage (climate change)|loss and damage]] of this kind. Loss and damage can stem from [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]], or from slow-onset events such as the loss of land to [[sea level rise]] for low-lying islands. Previous climate agreements classified loss and damage as a subset of adaptation.
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パリ協定で損失と損害を別の問題として取り上げるよう推進したのは、経済と生計が気候変動の悪影響に最も脆弱な[[:en:Alliance of Small Island States|小島嶼国同盟]]と[[:en:Least Developed Countries|後発開発途上国]]であった。COP19で2年前に設立され、2016年に期限切れとなる予定だった[[Warsaw Mechanism|ワルシャワ・メカニズム]]は、損失と損害を適応のサブセットとして分類しており、これは多くの国にとって不評であった。これはパリ協定の別の柱として認識されている。米国はこれに反対し、問題を適応とは別のものとして分類することが、さらなる気候資金の規定を生み出すことを懸念していた可能性がある。最終的に、協定は「損失と損害の回避、最小化、対処」を求めているが、責任の根拠として使用できないことを明記している。協定は、損失の分類、対処、責任分担に関する問題を解決しようとする機関であるワルシャワ・メカニズムを採用している。
The push to address loss and damage as a distinct issue in the Paris Agreement came from the [[Alliance of Small Island States]] and the Least Developed Countries, whose economies and livelihoods are most vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change. The [[Warsaw Mechanism]], established two years earlier during COP19 and set to expire in 2016, categorizes loss and damage as a subset of adaptation, which was unpopular with many countries. It is recognized as a separate pillar of the Paris Agreement. The United States argued against this, possibly worried that classifying the issue as separate from adaptation would create yet another climate finance provision. In the end, the agreement calls for "averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage" but specifies that it cannot be used as the basis for liability. The agreement adopts the Warsaw Mechanism, an institution that will attempt to address questions about how to classify, address, and share responsibility for loss.
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=== 透明性 ===
=== Transparency ===
{{Main/ja|:en:Enhanced Transparency Framework}}
{{Main|Enhanced Transparency Framework}}
締約国は、NDC達成に向けた進捗状況を評価し、野心を強化する方法を決定するために、技術専門家によるレビューによってその進捗状況を追跡することが法的に義務付けられている。パリ協定第13条は、調和された[[:en:Monitoring, reporting and verification|監視、報告、検証]](MRV)要件を確立する「行動と支援のための強化された透明性枠組み」を明確にしている。先進国と開発途上国の両方は、緩和努力について2年ごとに報告しなければならず、すべての締約国は技術的およびピアレビューの対象となる。
The parties are legally bound to have their progress tracked by technical expert review to assess achievement toward the NDC and to determine ways to strengthen ambition. Article 13 of the Paris Agreement articulates an "enhanced transparency framework for action and support" that establishes harmonized [[Monitoring, reporting and verification|monitoring, reporting, and verification]] (MRV) requirements. Both developed and developing nations must report every two years on their mitigation efforts, and all parties will be subject to technical and peer review.
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強化された透明性枠組みは普遍的であるが、この枠組みは、先進国と開発途上国の能力を区別するための「組み込みの柔軟性」を提供するものとされている。パリ協定には、能力構築のための強化された枠組みの規定があり、各国の様々な状況を認識し、各国の報告能力を考慮して各国の技術専門家レビューを行うこととしている。協定の締約国は、2024年までに、その後2年ごとに、最初の隔年透明性報告書(BTR)と[[:en:greenhouse gas inventory|温室効果ガス目録]]の数値をUNFCCCに提出する。先進国は、2022年に最初のBTRを提出し、それ以降毎年目録を提出する。また、協定は、開発途上国がコンプライアンスに必要な[[:en:institution|機関]]とプロセスを構築するのを支援するための、透明性のための能力構築イニシアティブを開発している。
While the enhanced transparency framework is universal, the framework is meant to provide "built-in flexibility" to distinguish between developed and developing countries' capacities. The Paris Agreement has provisions for an enhanced framework for capacity building, recognizes the varying circumstances of countries, and notes that the technical expert review for each country consider that country's specific capacity for reporting. Parties to the agreement send their first Biennial Transparency Report (BTR), and [[greenhouse gas inventory]] figures to the UNFCCC by 2024 and every two years after that. Developed countries submit their first BTR in 2022 and inventories annually from that year. The agreement also develops a Capacity-Building Initiative for Transparency to assist developing countries in building the necessary [[institution]]s and processes for compliance.
Flexibility can be incorporated into the enhanced transparency framework via the scope, level of detail, or frequency of reporting, tiered based on a country's capacity. The requirement for in-country technical reviews could be lifted for some less developed or small island developing countries. Ways to assess capacity include financial and human resources in a country necessary for NDC review.
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=== 訴訟 ===
=== Litigation ===
{{main/ja|:en:Climate change litigation}}
{{main|Climate change litigation}}
パリ協定は、気候変動訴訟の焦点となっている。この分野で最初の主要な訴訟の1つは、パリ協定以前にオランダ政府が2030年の排出削減目標を削減した後に提起された''[[:en:State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation|オランダ国対ウルゲンダ財団]]''であった。2015年の政府に対する最初の判決で計画された削減を維持するよう求められた後、2019年には[[:en:Supreme Court of the Netherlands|オランダ最高裁判所]]による控訴審で判決が支持され、オランダ政府は排出目標を低下させることにより、オランダ法および[[:en:European Convention on Human Rights|欧州人権条約]]に基づく人権を擁護しなかったと判断された。パリ協定の2℃の温度目標は、判決の法的根拠の一部を提供した。目標がドイツ法に明記されている協定は、''[[:en:Neubauer et al. v. Germany|ノイバウアー他対ドイツ]]''における議論の一部も形成し、裁判所はドイツに気候目標の見直しを命じた。
The Paris Agreement has become a focal point of climate change litigation. One of the first major cases in this area was ''[[State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation]]'', which was raised against the Netherlands' government after it had reduced its planned emissions reductions goal for 2030 prior to the Paris Agreement. After an initial ruling against the government in 2015 that required it to maintain its planned reduction, the decision was upheld on appeals through the [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands]] in 2019, ruling that the Dutch government failed to uphold human rights under Dutch law and the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] by lowering its emission targets. The 2{{nbsp}}°C temperature target of the Paris Agreement provided part of the judgement's legal basis. The agreement, whose goals are enshrined in German law, also formed part of the argumentation in ''[[Neubauer et al. v. Germany]]'', where the court ordered Germany to reconsider its climate targets.
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2021年5月、[[:en:The Hague|ハーグ]]地方裁判所は、石油会社[[Royal Dutch Shell/ja|ロイヤル・ダッチ・シェル]]に対し、''[[:en:Milieudefensie et al v Royal Dutch Shell|環境防衛他対ロイヤル・ダッチ・シェル]]''で不利な判決を下した。裁判所は、同社が人権を侵害しているとして、2030年までに2019年レベルから世界の排出量を45%削減しなければならないと判断した。この訴訟は、パリ協定を企業に適用した最初の主要な事例と見なされている。
In May 2021, the district court of [[The Hague]] ruled against oil company [[Royal Dutch Shell]] in ''[[Milieudefensie et al v Royal Dutch Shell]]''. The court ruled that it must cut its global emissions by 45% from 2019 levels by 2030, as it was in violation of human rights. This lawsuit was considered the first major application of the Paris Agreement towards a corporation.
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=== 人権 ===
=== Human rights ===
{{Further/ja|:en:Human rights}}
{{Further|Human rights}}
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2022年7月4日、[[:en:Supreme Federal Court|ブラジル連邦最高裁判所]]は、パリ協定を「[[:en:Human rights treaty bodies|人権条約]]」と認定した。ブラジルの裁判所の判決によると、それは「国内法に優先する」べきであるとされた。同月、[[:en:United Nations Human Rights Council|国連人権理事会]]は、決議「(A/HRC/50/L.10/Rev.1)人権と気候変動に関する、無投票採択」において、協定の批准と実施を呼びかけ、気候変動の阻止と食料への権利との関連性を強調した。
On 4 July 2022, the [[Supreme Federal Court]] of [[Brazil]] recognized the Paris agreement as a "[[Human rights treaty bodies|human rights treaty]]". According to the ruling of the court in Brazil it should "supersede national law". In the same month the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] in a resolution "(A/HRC/50/L.10/Rev.1) on Human rights and climate change, adopted without a vote" called to ratify and implement the agreement and emphasized the link between stopping climate change and the right to food.
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[[:en:Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|国連人権高等弁務官事務所]]は、「気候変動は、生命、水と衛生、食料、健康、住居、自己決定、文化、開発を含む様々な人権の享受を脅かす」と公式に認識している。
The [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] officially recognized that "Climate change threatens the effective enjoyment of a range of human rights including those to life, water and sanitation, food, health, housing, self-determination, culture and development."
The agreement was lauded by French president [[François Hollande]], UN secretary-general [[Ban Ki-moon]] and [[Christiana Figueres]], Executive Secretary of the UNFCCC. The president of Brazil, [[Dilma Rousseff]], called the agreement "balanced and long-lasting", and India's prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] commended the agreement's [[climate justice]]. When the agreement achieved the required signatures in October 2016, US president [[Barack Obama]] said that "Even if we meet every target, we will only get to part of where we need to go." He also stated "this agreement will help delay or avoid some of the worst consequences of climate change [and] will help other nations ratchet down their emissions over time."
Some [[environmentalist]]s and analysts reacted cautiously, acknowledging the "spirit of Paris" in bringing together countries, but expressing less optimism about the pace of climate mitigation and how much the agreement could do for poorer countries. [[James Hansen]], a former NASA scientist and leading climate change expert, voiced anger that most of the agreement consists of "promises" or aims and not firm commitments and called the Paris talks a fraud with "no action, just promises". Criticism of the agreement from those arguing against climate action has been diffuse, which may be due to the weakness of the agreement. This type of criticism typically focuses on national sovereignty and ineffectiveness of international action.
パリ協定には、世界の地表温度の上昇を産業革命以前のレベルから2 °C (3.6 °F)をはるかに下回るように維持するという長期的な温度目標がある。この条約はまた、好ましくは増加の制限を1.5 °C (2.7 °F)のみにするべきであると述べている。これらの制限は、長年にわたって測定された地球の平均気温として定義されている。