Beef: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Standing-rib-roast.jpg|thumb|A raw [[Standing rib roast|rib roast]]]]

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'''Beef''' is the [[culinary name]] for [[meat]] from [[cattle]] (''Bos taurus''). Beef can be prepared in various ways; [[Cut of beef|cuts]] are often used for [[steak]], which can be cooked to varying degrees of [[doneness]], while trimmings are often [[Ground beef|ground or minced]], as found in most [[hamburger]]s. Beef contains [[protein]], [[iron]], and [[vitamin B12]]. Along with other kinds of [[red meat]], high consumption is associated with an increased risk of [[colorectal cancer]] and [[coronary heart disease]], especially when [[processed meat|processed]]. Beef has a high [[Environmental impact of meat production|environmental impact]], being a primary driver of [[deforestation]] with the highest [[greenhouse gas emissions]] of any agricultural product.

In prehistoric times, humans hunted [[aurochs]] and later [[domesticated]] them. Since that time, numerous [[beef cattle|breeds of cattle]] have been [[Selective breeding|bred]] specifically for the quality or quantity of their meat. Today, beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, after [[pork]] and [[poultry]]. As of 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China were the largest producers of beef.

Some religions and cultures [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of beef|prohibit beef consumption]], especially [[Indian religions]] like [[Hinduism]]. [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] are also against [[Animal slaughter|animal slaughtering]], but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.

== Etymology ==

The word ''beef'' is from the Latin word ''bōs'', in contrast to ''cow'' which is from Middle English ''cou'' (both words have the same [[Indo-European vocabulary#Animals|Indo-European]] root ''{{PIE|*gʷou-}}'').

This is one example of the common English dichotomy between the words for animals (with largely [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] origins) and their meat (with [[Romance languages|Romanic]] origins) that is also found in such English word-pairs as ''pig/pork'', ''deer/venison'', ''sheep/mutton'', and ''chicken/poultry'' (also the less common ''goat/chevon''). ''Beef'' is [[cognate]] with ''bovine'' through the [[Late Latin]] ''bovīnus''. The rarely used plural form of beef is ''beeves''.

== History ==

People have eaten the flesh of [[bovine]]s since prehistoric times; some of the earliest known [[cave painting]]s, such as those of [[Lascaux]], show [[aurochs]] in hunting scenes. People [[domestication|domesticated]] cattle to provide ready access to beef, [[milk]], and [[leather]]. Cattle have been domesticated at least twice over the course of evolutionary history. The first domestication event occurred around 10,500 years ago with the evolution of ''Bos taurus''. The second was more recent, around 7,000 years ago, with the evolution of ''Bos indicus'' in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. There is a possible third domestication event 8,500 years ago, with a potential third species ''Bos africanus'' arising in Africa.

In the United States, the growth of the beef business was largely due to expansion in the Southwest. Upon the acquisition of grasslands through the [[Mexican–American War]] of 1848, and later the expulsion of the Plains Indians from this region and the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], the American livestock industry began, starting primarily with the taming of [[feral]] and [[semi-feral]] Longhorn cattle. Chicago and New York City were the first to benefit from these developments in their stockyards and in their meat markets.

== Production ==

== Production ==

[[File:World Production Of Meat, Main Items.svg|thumb|Cattle is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwide]]

[[File:Beef_production_1961_2021.png|thumb|Beef (and buffalo meat) production has grown substantially over the recent 60 years.]]

[[File:World Emissions Intensity Of Agricultural Commodities (2021).svg|thumb|Beef has the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.]]

[[Beef cattle]] are raised and [[Cattle feeding|fed]] using a variety of methods, including [[feedlot]]s, [[free range]], [[ranch]]ing, [[backgrounding]] and [[intensive animal farming]]. [[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations]] (CAFOs), commonly referred to as factory farms, are commonly used to meet the demand of beef production. CAFOs supply 70.4% of cows in the US market and 99% of all meat in the United States supply. Cattle CAFOs can also be a source of ''[[E. coli]]'' contamination in the food supply due to the prevalence of manure in CAFOs. These ''E. coli'' contaminations include one strain, ''E. coli'' O157:H7, which can be toxic to humans, because cattle typically hold this strain in their digestive system. Another consequence of unsanitary conditions created by high-density confinement systems is increased [[Antibiotic use in livestock|use of antibiotics]] in order to prevent illness. An analysis of [[FDA]] sales data by the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] found 42% of medically important antibiotic use in the U.S. was on cattle, posing concerns about the development of [[antibiotic resistant]] bacteria. In 2023 production was forecast to peak by 2035.

=== Environmental impact ===

{{Further|Environmental impact of meat production|Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|Cattle#Environmental impact}}

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{{Bar chart|title=Mean [[greenhouse gas emissions]] for different food types|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Greenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2-Ceq per g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=62|label1=[[Ruminant|Ruminant Meat]]|data1=62|label2=[[Recirculating aquaculture system|Recirculating Aquaculture]]|data2=30|label3=[[Trawling|Trawling Fishery]]|data3=26|label4=[[Aquaculture|Non-recirculating Aquaculture]]|data4=12|label5=[[Pork]]|data5=10|label6=[[Poultry]]|data6=10|label7=[[Dairy]]|data7=9.1|label8=[[Fishery|Non-trawling fishery]]|data8=8.6|label9=[[Egg as food|Eggs]]|data9=6.8|label10=[[List of root vegetables|Starchy Roots]]|data10=1.7|label11=[[Wheat]]|data11=1.2|label12=[[Maize]]|data12=1.2|label13=[[Legumes]]|data13=0.25}}{{Bar chart|title=Mean [[land use]] of different foods|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Land Use (m2year per 100g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=185|label1=[[Lamb and mutton|Lamb and Mutton]]|data1=185|label2=Beef|data2=164|label3=[[Cheese]]|data3=41|label4=[[Pork]]|data4=11|label5=[[Poultry]]|data5=7.1|label6=[[Egg as food|Eggs]]|data6=5.7|label7=[[Aquaculture|Farmed Fish]]|data7=3.7|label8=[[Faboideae|Groundnuts]]|data8=3.5|label9=[[Peas]]|data9=3.4|label10=[[Tofu]]|data10=2.2|label11=|data11=|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}}

The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to the [[natural environment]]. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount of [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions]], air pollution, and water pollution. A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) of [[Greenhouse gas|anthropogenic greenhouse gases]] in 2010. Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the large [[Field (agriculture)|agricultural fields]] that are used to grow cattle feed. According to [[FAO]], "Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere." Beef is also the primary driver of [[deforestation]] in the [[Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|Amazon]], with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. 41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production. This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher. The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a kilogram of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 kilograms of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 kilograms of feed of much lower quality. A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009.~~{{Update inline|date=January 2021|reason=}}~~ A 2021 [[CSIRO]] trial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweed ''[[Asparagopsis taxiformis]]'' could reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%. While such feed options are still experimental, even when looking at the most widely used feeds around the globe, there is high variability in efficiency. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs to global beef production.

The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to the [[natural environment]]. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount of [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions]], air pollution, and water pollution. A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) of [[Greenhouse gas|anthropogenic greenhouse gases]] in 2010. Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the large [[Field (agriculture)|agricultural fields]] that are used to grow cattle feed. According to [[FAO]], "Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere." Beef is also the primary driver of [[deforestation]] in the [[Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|Amazon]], with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. 41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production. This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher. The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a kilogram of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 kilograms of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 kilograms of feed of much lower quality. A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009. A 2021 [[CSIRO]] trial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweed ''[[Asparagopsis taxiformis]]'' could reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%. While such feed options are still experimental, even when looking at the most widely used feeds around the globe, there is high variability in efficiency. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs to global beef production.

Some scientists claim that the demand for beef is contributing to [[Holocene extinction|significant biodiversity loss]] as it is a significant driver of deforestation and [[habitat destruction]]; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production. The 2019 [[IPBES]] ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' also concurs that the beef industry plays a significant role in [[biodiversity loss]]. Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming, which is mostly cattle.

===Certifications===

Some kinds of beef may receive special certifications or designations based on criteria including their breed ([[Certified Angus Beef]],[[Certified Hereford Beef]]), [[Protected Designation of Origin|origin]] ([[Kobe beef]], [[Carne de Ávila]], [[Belgian Blue]]), or the way the cattle are treated, fed or slaughtered ([[Organic beef|organic]], [[Grass-fed beef|grass-fed]], [[Kashrut|Kosher]], or [[Halal]] beef). Some countries regulate the marketing and sale of beef by observing criteria post-slaughter and [[Beef carcass classification|classifying]] the observed quality of the meat.

===Global statistics===

===Global statistics===

[[File:Production Of Cattle Meat (2021).svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Production of beef worldwide, by country in 2021]]

In 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China produced the most beef with 12.22 million tons, 9.9 million tons, and 6.46 million tons respectively. The top 3 beef exporting countries in 2019 were Australia (14.8% of total exports), the United States (13.4% of total exports), and Brazil (12.6% of total exports). Beef production is also important to the [[economies]] of Japan, Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Belarus and Nicaragua.

====Top 5 cattle and beef exporting countries====

As per 2020, Brazil was the largest beef exporter in the world followed by Australia, United States, India (Includes [[Buffalo meat|Carabeef]] only) and Argentina. Brazil, Australia, the United States and India accounted for roughly 61% of the world's beef exports.

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====Top 10 cattle and beef producing countries====

The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year. Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year.

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|+Beef production (1000 Metric Tons CWE)

|-

! Rank !! Country !! 2009!! 2010 !! % Chg

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====National cattle herds (Per 1000 Head)====

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====Production losses caused by climate change====

[[File:Liu 2024 climate beef.png|thumb|upright=1.75|Most of the top 10 beef-producing countries are likely to see lower production with greater temperatures (left) and heat stress (right).]]

{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on livestock#Cattle|paragraphs=5,6|files=no}}

{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on livestock|Cattle|paragraphs=5,6|files=no}}

==Preparation==

=== Cuts ===

Most beef can be used as is by merely cutting into certain parts, such as [[pot roast (beef)|roasts]], [[short ribs]] or [[steak]] ([[filet mignon]], [[sirloin steak]], [[rump steak]], [[rib steak]], [[rib eye steak]], [[hanger steak]], etc.), while other cuts are processed ([[corned beef]] or [[beef jerky]]). Trimmings, on the other hand, which are usually mixed with meat from older, leaner (therefore tougher) cattle, are [[Ground beef|ground]], [[minced]] or used in [[sausage]]s. The blood is used in some varieties called [[blood sausage]]. Other parts that are eaten include other muscles and [[offal]], such as the [[oxtail]], [[liver (food)|liver]], [[Beef tongue|tongue]], [[tripe]] from the [[reticulum (anatomy)|reticulum]] or [[rumen]], [[gland]]s (particularly the [[pancreas]] and [[thymus]], referred to as [[sweetbread]]), the [[heart]], the [[brain]] (although forbidden where there is a danger of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]], BSE, commonly referred to as mad cow disease), the [[kidney]]s, and the tender [[testicle]]s of the bull (known in the United States as ''calf fries'', ''prairie oysters'', or ''[[Rocky Mountain oysters]]''). Some [[intestine]]s are cooked and eaten as is, but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making [[Stock (food)|beef stock]]. Meat from younger cows (calves) is called [[veal]]. Beef from [[Cattle#Terminology|steers]] and [[:wikt:heifer|heifers]] is similar.

Beef is first divided into [[primal cut]]s, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from which [[steak]]s and other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from ''hoof and horn'' increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as "brisket" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.

=== Aging and tenderization ===

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To improve [[meat tenderness|tenderness]] of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous [[proteolytic]] enzymes to weaken structural and [[myofibrillar]] proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.

Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.

Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes ([[papain]], [[bromelin]] or [[ficin]]) can be applied or injected to augment the endogenous enzymes; this can be done with purified enzyme or by using a [[marinade]] including ingredients that naturally contain the enzyme (e.g. [[papaya]] for papain or [[pineapple]] for bromelin). Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.

=== Cooking methods ===

These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs.

==== Dry heat ====

[[File:Roast beef.jpg|thumb|Roast beef]]

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===== Internal temperature =====

[[File:Rump steak.jpg|thumb|Beef rump steak on grill pan, cooked medium rare]]

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Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with a [[meat thermometer]]. Beef can be cooked using the [[sous-vide]] method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such as [[broiling]] or [[roasting]] it is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.

==== Frying ====

Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically by [[shallow frying]], although [[deep frying]] may be used, often for meat enrobed with [[breadcrumbs]] as in [[milanesa]]s or [[finger steaks]]. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as in [[stir frying]], typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hot [[wok]]. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.

==== Moist heat ====

Moist heat cooking methods include [[braising]], [[pot roast]]ing, [[stew]]ing and [[sous-vide]]. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.

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:Sous-vide, French for "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.

[[File:Beef Roasted with Vinegar.jpg|thumb|Beef roasted with [[vinegar]] and sliced with spiced paste, often called "cold beef"]]

Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just [[simmer]]ing, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since [[thermostat]]ic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, {{convert|52|C|F}} (sous-vide) to {{convert|90|C|F}} ([[slow cooking]]), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough [[collagen]] in connective tissue into gelatin through [[hydrolysis]], with minimal toughening.

With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, [[pathogen]]s, such as [[bacteria]] will be killed, and [[pasteurization]] can be achieved. Because browning ([[Maillard reaction]]s) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo [[searing]] in a very hot pan, [[grilling]] or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).

Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)

Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. In [[hot pot]] cooking, such as [[shabu-shabu]], very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. In [[fondue]] bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorful [[sauce]]s to complement the meat.

==== Raw beef ====

[[File:Raw beef slices.jpg|thumb|Thin slices of raw beef for [[hot pot]] cooking]]

[[Steak tartare]] is a [[French cuisine|French]] dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.

The [[Belgian cuisine|Belgian]] or Dutch dish ''[[Steak tartare|filet américain]]'' is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich. ''[[Kibbeh nayyeh]]'' is a similar [[Lebanese cuisine|Lebanese]] and [[Syrian cuisine|Syrian]] dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish called ''tire siga'' or ''[[kitfo]]'' is eaten (upon availability).

''[[Carpaccio]]'' of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.

''[[Yukhoe]]'' is a variety of ''[[hoe (dish)|hoe]]'', raw dishes in [[Korean cuisine]] which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used for ''yukhoe'' is tender [[rump steak]]. For the seasoning, [[soy sauce]], sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice of ''bae'' ([[Korean pear]]) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.

==== Cured, smoked, and dried beef ====

[[File:Beef Curry in Bangladesh.jpg|right|thumb|Beef [[curry]] from Bangladesh]]

''[[Bresaola]]'' is an [[Drying (food)|air-dried]], salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated in [[Valtellina]], a valley in the [[Alps]] of northern Italy's [[Lombardy]] region. [[Bündnerfleisch]] is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland. [[Chipped beef]] is an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."

[[Beef jerky]] is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.

[[Biltong]] is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.

[[Pastrami]] is often made from beef; raw beef is [[Salt-cured meat|salted]], then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, and [[Smoked meat|smoked]].

[[Corned beef]] is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasoned [[brine]]. The corn in ''corned beef'' refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The term ''corned beef'' can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considered [[delicatessen]] fare.

[[Spiced beef]] is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at [[Christmas]] in Ireland. It is a form of [[salt beef]], cured with spices and [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]], intended to be boiled or broiled in [[Guinness]] or a similar [[stout (beer)|stout]], and then optionally roasted for a period after. There are various other recipes for [[pickled]] beef. [[Sauerbraten]] is a German variant.

== Consumption ==

Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after [[pork]] and [[poultry]] at 38% and 30% respectively.

=== Nutritional content ===

{{nutritionalvalue

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Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], [[vitamin B12]], [[iron]] and [[zinc]], but also contains high amounts of [[saturated fat]]. [[Red meat]] is the most significant dietary source of [[carnitine]] and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source of [[creatine]]. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.

=== Health impact ===

{{See also|Meat#Health|l1=Health concerns associated with meat|Red meat#Health effects}}

====Cancer====

Consumption of [[red meat]], and especially [[Processed meat|processed red meat]], is known to increase the risk of [[bowel cancer]] and some other cancers.

====Coronary heart disease====

A 2010 meta-analysis found that processed [[red meat]] (and all [[processed meat]]) was correlated with a higher risk of [[coronary heart disease]], although based on studies that separated the two, this meta-analysis found that red meat intake was not associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease. As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.

====Dioxins====

Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized with [[sewage sludge]]. Elevated [[Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds|dioxins]] may be present in meat from these cattle.

==== ''E. coli'' recalls ====

Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due to ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' (''E. coli'') contamination:

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* September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated with ''E. coli'' 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History.

==== Mad cow disease ====

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* In June 2005, Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in [[Texas]]. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that "privileged information." The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time when [[Oprah Winfrey]] raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show which aired 16 April 1996.

In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban. In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle,

==Restrictions==

=== Religious and cultural prohibitions ===

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Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits cow beef known as ''Go-Maans'' in [[Hindi]]. Bovines have a sacred status in [[culture of India|India]] especially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.

Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society. Since the [[Vedic period]], cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming like [[plough]]ing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent of [[Jainism]] and the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]]. In medieval India, [[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] issued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.

For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.

In [[ancient China]], the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role in [[agriculture]]. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.

During the season of [[Lent]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] periodically give up meat and poultry (and sometimes dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. Observant [[Jews]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] may not eat any meat or poultry which has not been [[Ritual slaughter#Jewish and Islamic ritual slaughter|slaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws]].

=== Legal prohibition ===

=== Legal prohibition ===

==== India ====

Most of the [[states of India|North Indian states]] prohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons. Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from their [[Diet (nutrition)|diets]]. Article 48 of the [[Constitution of India]] mandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle. [[Article 47 of the Constitution of India]] provides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as "India's bovine burden."

In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food. Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export. In 2017, India sought a total "beef ban" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market.

==== Nepal ====

==== Nepal ====

The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law.

==== Cuba ====

In 2003, Cuba banned cow slaughter due to severe shortage of milk and milk products. On 14 April 2021, the ban was loosened, allowing ranchers to do as they wish as long as state quotas were met and the health of the herd could be ensured.

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== External links ==

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[[Category:Beef| ]]

[[Category:Cattle products]]

</translate>

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+<languages />
+<translate>
+<!--T:1-->
 {{short description|Meat from cattle}}
 [[File:Standing-rib-roast.jpg|thumb|A raw [[Standing rib roast|rib roast]]]]
@@ Line 5: / Line 8: @@
 '''Beef''' is the [[culinary name]] for [[meat]] from [[cattle]] (''Bos taurus''). Beef can be prepared in various ways; [[Cut of beef|cuts]] are often used for [[steak]], which can be cooked to varying degrees of [[doneness]], while trimmings are often [[Ground beef|ground or minced]], as found in most [[hamburger]]s. Beef contains [[protein]], [[iron]], and [[vitamin B12]]. Along with other kinds of [[red meat]], high consumption is associated with an increased risk of [[colorectal cancer]] and [[coronary heart disease]], especially when [[processed meat|processed]]. Beef has a high [[Environmental impact of meat production|environmental impact]], being a primary driver of [[deforestation]] with the highest [[greenhouse gas emissions]] of any agricultural product.
+<!--T:2-->
 In prehistoric times, humans hunted [[aurochs]] and later [[domesticated]] them. Since that time, numerous [[beef cattle|breeds of cattle]] have been [[Selective breeding|bred]] specifically for the quality or quantity of their meat. Today, beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, after [[pork]] and [[poultry]]. As of 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China were the largest producers of beef.
+<!--T:3-->
 Some religions and cultures [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of beef|prohibit beef consumption]], especially [[Indian religions]] like [[Hinduism]]. [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] are also against [[Animal slaughter|animal slaughtering]], but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.
+<!--T:4-->
 == Etymology ==
 The word ''beef'' is from the Latin word ''bōs'', in contrast to ''cow'' which is from Middle English ''cou'' (both words have the same [[Indo-European vocabulary#Animals|Indo-European]] root ''{{PIE|*gʷou-}}'').
+<!--T:5-->
 This is one example of the common English dichotomy between the words for animals (with largely [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] origins) and their meat (with [[Romance languages|Romanic]] origins) that is also found in such English word-pairs as ''pig/pork'', ''deer/venison'', ''sheep/mutton'', and ''chicken/poultry'' (also the less common ''goat/chevon''). ''Beef'' is [[cognate]] with ''bovine'' through the [[Late Latin]] ''bovīnus''. The rarely used plural form of beef is ''beeves''.
+<!--T:6-->
 == History ==
 People have eaten the flesh of [[bovine]]s since prehistoric times; some of the earliest known [[cave painting]]s, such as those of [[Lascaux]], show [[aurochs]] in hunting scenes. People [[domestication|domesticated]] cattle to provide ready access to beef, [[milk]], and [[leather]]. Cattle have been domesticated at least twice over the course of evolutionary history. The first domestication event occurred around 10,500 years ago with the evolution of ''Bos taurus''. The second was more recent, around 7,000 years ago, with the evolution of ''Bos indicus'' in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. There is a possible third domestication event 8,500 years ago, with a potential third species ''Bos africanus'' arising in Africa.
+<!--T:7-->
 In the United States, the growth of the beef business was largely due to expansion in the Southwest. Upon the acquisition of grasslands through the [[Mexican–American War]] of 1848, and later the expulsion of the Plains Indians from this region and the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], the American livestock industry began, starting primarily with the taming of [[feral]] and [[semi-feral]] Longhorn cattle. Chicago and New York City were the first to benefit from these developments in their stockyards and in their meat markets.
-== Production ==
+== Production == <!--T:8-->
+<!--T:9-->
 [[File:World Production Of Meat, Main Items.svg|thumb|Cattle is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwide]]
 [[File:Beef_production_1961_2021.png|thumb|Beef (and buffalo meat) production has grown substantially over the recent 60 years.]]
 [[File:World Emissions Intensity Of Agricultural Commodities (2021).svg|thumb|Beef has the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.]]
+<!--T:10-->
 [[Beef cattle]] are raised and [[Cattle feeding|fed]] using a variety of methods, including [[feedlot]]s, [[free range]], [[ranch]]ing, [[backgrounding]] and [[intensive animal farming]]. [[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations]] (CAFOs), commonly referred to as factory farms, are commonly used to meet the demand of beef production. CAFOs supply 70.4% of cows in the US market and 99% of all meat in the United States supply. Cattle CAFOs can also be a source of ''[[E. coli]]'' contamination in the food supply due to the prevalence of manure in CAFOs. These ''E. coli'' contaminations include one strain, ''E. coli'' O157:H7, which can be toxic to humans, because cattle typically hold this strain in their digestive system. Another consequence of unsanitary conditions created by high-density confinement systems is increased [[Antibiotic use in livestock|use of antibiotics]] in order to prevent illness. An analysis of [[FDA]] sales data by the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] found 42% of medically important antibiotic use in the U.S. was on cattle, posing concerns about the development of [[antibiotic resistant]] bacteria. In 2023 production was forecast to peak by 2035.
+<!--T:11-->
 === Environmental impact ===
 {{Further|Environmental impact of meat production|Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|Cattle#Environmental impact}}
@@ Line 32: / Line 44: @@
 {{Bar chart|title=Mean [[greenhouse gas emissions]] for different food types|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Greenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO<small>2</small>-C<small>eq</small> per g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=62|label1=[[Ruminant|Ruminant Meat]]|data1=62|label2=[[Recirculating aquaculture system|Recirculating Aquaculture]]|data2=30|label3=[[Trawling|Trawling Fishery]]|data3=26|label4=[[Aquaculture|Non-recirculating Aquaculture]]|data4=12|label5=[[Pork]]|data5=10|label6=[[Poultry]]|data6=10|label7=[[Dairy]]|data7=9.1|label8=[[Fishery|Non-trawling fishery]]|data8=8.6|label9=[[Egg as food|Eggs]]|data9=6.8|label10=[[List of root vegetables|Starchy Roots]]|data10=1.7|label11=[[Wheat]]|data11=1.2|label12=[[Maize]]|data12=1.2|label13=[[Legumes]]|data13=0.25}}{{Bar chart|title=Mean [[land use]] of different foods|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Land Use (m<sup>2</sup>year per 100g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=185|label1=[[Lamb and mutton|Lamb and Mutton]]|data1=185|label2=Beef|data2=164|label3=[[Cheese]]|data3=41|label4=[[Pork]]|data4=11|label5=[[Poultry]]|data5=7.1|label6=[[Egg as food|Eggs]]|data6=5.7|label7=[[Aquaculture|Farmed Fish]]|data7=3.7|label8=[[Faboideae|Groundnuts]]|data8=3.5|label9=[[Peas]]|data9=3.4|label10=[[Tofu]]|data10=2.2|label11=|data11=|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}}
-The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to the [[natural environment]]. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount of [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions]], air pollution, and water pollution. A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) of [[Greenhouse gas|anthropogenic greenhouse gases]] in 2010. Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the large [[Field (agriculture)|agricultural fields]] that are used to grow cattle feed. According to [[FAO]], "Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere." Beef is also the primary driver of [[deforestation]] in the [[Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|Amazon]], with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. 41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production. This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher. The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a kilogram of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 kilograms of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 kilograms of feed of much lower quality. A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009.{{Update inline|date=January 2021|reason=}} A 2021 [[CSIRO]] trial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweed ''[[Asparagopsis taxiformis]]'' could reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%. While such feed options are still experimental, even when looking at the most widely used feeds around the globe, there is high variability in efficiency. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs to global beef production.
+<!--T:12-->
+The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to the [[natural environment]]. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount of [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions]], air pollution, and water pollution. A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) of [[Greenhouse gas|anthropogenic greenhouse gases]] in 2010. Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the large [[Field (agriculture)|agricultural fields]] that are used to grow cattle feed. According to [[FAO]], "Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere." Beef is also the primary driver of [[deforestation]] in the [[Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|Amazon]], with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. 41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production. This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher. The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a kilogram of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 kilograms of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 kilograms of feed of much lower quality. A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009. A 2021 [[CSIRO]] trial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweed ''[[Asparagopsis taxiformis]]'' could reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%. While such feed options are still experimental, even when looking at the most widely used feeds around the globe, there is high variability in efficiency. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs to global beef production.
+<!--T:13-->
 Some scientists claim that the demand for beef is contributing to [[Holocene extinction|significant biodiversity loss]] as it is a significant driver of deforestation and [[habitat destruction]]; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production. The 2019 [[IPBES]] ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' also concurs that the beef industry plays a significant role in [[biodiversity loss]]. Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming, which is mostly cattle.
+<!--T:14-->
 ===Certifications===
 Some kinds of beef may receive special certifications or designations based on criteria including their breed ([[Certified Angus Beef]],[[Certified Hereford Beef]]), [[Protected Designation of Origin|origin]] ([[Kobe beef]], [[Carne de Ávila]], [[Belgian Blue]]), or the way the cattle are treated, fed or slaughtered ([[Organic beef|organic]], [[Grass-fed beef|grass-fed]], [[Kashrut|Kosher]], or [[Halal]] beef). Some countries regulate the marketing and sale of beef by observing criteria post-slaughter and [[Beef carcass classification|classifying]] the observed quality of the meat.
-===Global statistics===
+===Global statistics=== <!--T:15-->
+<!--T:16-->
 [[File:Production Of Cattle Meat (2021).svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Production of beef worldwide, by country in 2021]]
+<!--T:17-->
 In 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China produced the most beef with 12.22 million tons, 9.9 million tons, and 6.46 million tons respectively. The top 3 beef exporting countries in 2019 were Australia (14.8% of total exports), the United States (13.4% of total exports), and Brazil (12.6% of total exports). Beef production is also important to the [[economies]] of Japan, Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Belarus and Nicaragua.
+<!--T:18-->
 ====Top 5 cattle and beef exporting countries====
 As per 2020, Brazil was the largest beef exporter in the world followed by Australia, United States, India (Includes [[Buffalo meat|Carabeef]] only) and Argentina. Brazil, Australia, the United States and India accounted for roughly 61% of the world's beef exports.
@@ Line 81: / Line 99: @@
 |}
+<!--T:19-->
 ====Top 10 cattle and beef producing countries====
 The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year. Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year.
@@ Line 86: / Line 105: @@
 |+Beef production (1000 Metric Tons CWE)
+<!--T:20-->
 |-
 ! Rank !! Country !! 2009!! 2010 !! % Chg
@@ Line 165: / Line 185: @@
 |}
+<!--T:21-->
 ====National cattle herds (Per 1000 Head)====
 {| class="wikitable" style=text-align:right;
@@ Line 191: / Line 212: @@
 |}
+<!--T:22-->
 ====Production losses caused by climate change====
 [[File:Liu 2024 climate beef.png|thumb|upright=1.75|Most of the top 10 beef-producing countries are likely to see lower production with greater temperatures (left) and heat stress (right).]]
-{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on livestock#Cattle|paragraphs=5,6|files=no}}
+{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on livestock|Cattle|paragraphs=5,6|files=no}}
+<!--T:23-->
 ==Preparation==
 {{Cookbook}}
+<!--T:24-->
 === Cuts ===
 {{Main|Cut of beef}}
 Most beef can be used as is by merely cutting into certain parts, such as [[pot roast (beef)|roasts]], [[short ribs]] or [[steak]] ([[filet mignon]], [[sirloin steak]], [[rump steak]], [[rib steak]], [[rib eye steak]], [[hanger steak]], etc.), while other cuts are processed ([[corned beef]] or [[beef jerky]]). Trimmings, on the other hand, which are usually mixed with meat from older, leaner (therefore tougher) cattle, are [[Ground beef|ground]], [[minced]] or used in [[sausage]]s. The blood is used in some varieties called [[blood sausage]]. Other parts that are eaten include other muscles and [[offal]], such as the [[oxtail]], [[liver (food)|liver]], [[Beef tongue|tongue]], [[tripe]] from the [[reticulum (anatomy)|reticulum]] or [[rumen]], [[gland]]s (particularly the [[pancreas]] and [[thymus]], referred to as [[sweetbread]]), the [[heart]], the [[brain]] (although forbidden where there is a danger of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]], BSE, commonly referred to as mad cow disease), the [[kidney]]s, and the tender [[testicle]]s of the bull (known in the United States as ''calf fries'', ''prairie oysters'', or ''[[Rocky Mountain oysters]]''). Some [[intestine]]s are cooked and eaten as is, but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making [[Stock (food)|beef stock]]. Meat from younger cows (calves) is called [[veal]]. Beef from [[Cattle#Terminology|steers]] and [[:wikt:heifer|heifers]] is similar.
+<!--T:25-->
 Beef is first divided into [[primal cut]]s, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from which [[steak]]s and other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from ''hoof and horn'' increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as "brisket" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.
+<!--T:26-->
 === Aging and tenderization ===
 {{Main|Beef aging}}
@@ Line 209: / Line 235: @@
 To improve [[meat tenderness|tenderness]] of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous [[proteolytic]] enzymes to weaken structural and [[myofibrillar]] proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.
+<!--T:27-->
 Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.
+<!--T:28-->
 Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes ([[papain]], [[bromelin]] or [[ficin]]) can be applied or injected to augment the endogenous enzymes; this can be done with purified enzyme or by using a [[marinade]] including ingredients that naturally contain the enzyme (e.g. [[papaya]] for papain or [[pineapple]] for bromelin). Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.
+<!--T:29-->
 === Cooking methods ===
 These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs.
+<!--T:30-->
 ==== Dry heat ====
 [[File:Roast beef.jpg|thumb|Roast beef]]
+<!--T:31-->
 {| class="wikitable"
 |-
@@ Line 240: / Line 271: @@
 |}
+<!--T:32-->
 ===== Internal temperature =====
 [[File:Rump steak.jpg|thumb|Beef rump steak on grill pan, cooked medium rare]]
@@ Line 245: / Line 277: @@
 Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with a [[meat thermometer]]. Beef can be cooked using the [[sous-vide]] method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such as [[broiling]] or [[roasting]] it is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.
+<!--T:33-->
 ==== Frying ====
 Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically by [[shallow frying]], although [[deep frying]] may be used, often for meat enrobed with [[breadcrumbs]] as in [[milanesa]]s or [[finger steaks]]. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as in [[stir frying]], typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hot [[wok]]. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.
+<!--T:34-->
 ==== Moist heat ====
 Moist heat cooking methods include [[braising]], [[pot roast]]ing, [[stew]]ing and [[sous-vide]]. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.
@@ Line 257: / Line 291: @@
 :Sous-vide, French for "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.
+<!--T:35-->
 [[File:Beef Roasted with Vinegar.jpg|thumb|Beef roasted with [[vinegar]] and sliced with spiced paste, often called "cold beef"]]
 Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just [[simmer]]ing, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since [[thermostat]]ic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, {{convert|52|C|F}} (sous-vide) to {{convert|90|C|F}} ([[slow cooking]]), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough [[collagen]] in connective tissue into gelatin through [[hydrolysis]], with minimal toughening.
+<!--T:36-->
 With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, [[pathogen]]s, such as [[bacteria]] will be killed, and [[pasteurization]] can be achieved. Because browning ([[Maillard reaction]]s) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo [[searing]] in a very hot pan, [[grilling]] or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).
+<!--T:37-->
 Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques.  (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)
+<!--T:38-->
 Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. In [[hot pot]] cooking, such as [[shabu-shabu]], very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. In [[fondue]] bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorful [[sauce]]s to complement the meat.
+<!--T:39-->
 ==== Raw beef ====
 [[File:Raw beef slices.jpg|thumb|Thin slices of raw beef for [[hot pot]] cooking]]
+<!--T:40-->
 [[Steak tartare]] is a [[French cuisine|French]] dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.
+<!--T:41-->
 The [[Belgian cuisine|Belgian]] or Dutch dish ''[[Steak tartare|filet américain]]'' is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich.  ''[[Kibbeh nayyeh]]'' is a similar [[Lebanese cuisine|Lebanese]] and [[Syrian cuisine|Syrian]] dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish called ''tire siga'' or ''[[kitfo]]'' is eaten (upon availability).
+<!--T:42-->
 ''[[Carpaccio]]'' of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.
+<!--T:43-->
 ''[[Yukhoe]]'' is a variety of ''[[hoe (dish)|hoe]]'', raw dishes in [[Korean cuisine]] which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used for ''yukhoe'' is tender [[rump steak]]. For the seasoning, [[soy sauce]], sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice of ''bae'' ([[Korean pear]]) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.
+<!--T:44-->
 ==== Cured, smoked, and dried beef ====
 [[File:Beef Curry in Bangladesh.jpg|right|thumb|Beef [[curry]] from Bangladesh]]
 ''[[Bresaola]]'' is an [[Drying (food)|air-dried]], salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated in [[Valtellina]], a valley in the [[Alps]] of northern Italy's [[Lombardy]] region. [[Bündnerfleisch]] is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland. [[Chipped beef]] is an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."
+<!--T:45-->
 [[Beef jerky]] is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.
+<!--T:46-->
 [[Biltong]] is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.
+<!--T:47-->
 [[Pastrami]] is often made from beef; raw beef is [[Salt-cured meat|salted]], then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, and [[Smoked meat|smoked]].
+<!--T:48-->
 [[Corned beef]] is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasoned [[brine]]. The corn in ''corned beef'' refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The term ''corned beef'' can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considered [[delicatessen]] fare.
+<!--T:49-->
 [[Spiced beef]] is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at [[Christmas]] in Ireland. It is a form of [[salt beef]], cured with spices and [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]], intended to be boiled or broiled in [[Guinness]] or a similar [[stout (beer)|stout]], and then optionally roasted for a period after. There are various other recipes for [[pickled]] beef. [[Sauerbraten]] is a German variant.
+<!--T:50-->
 == Consumption ==
 Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after [[pork]] and [[poultry]] at 38% and 30% respectively.
+<!--T:51-->
 === Nutritional content ===
 {{nutritionalvalue
@@ Line 332: / Line 383: @@
 Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], [[vitamin B12]], [[iron]] and [[zinc]], but also contains high amounts of [[saturated fat]]. [[Red meat]] is the most significant dietary source of [[carnitine]] and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source of [[creatine]]. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.
+<!--T:52-->
 === Health impact ===
 {{See also|Meat#Health|l1=Health concerns associated with meat|Red meat#Health effects}}
+<!--T:53-->
 ====Cancer====
 Consumption of [[red meat]], and especially [[Processed meat|processed red meat]], is known to increase the risk of [[bowel cancer]] and some other cancers.
+<!--T:54-->
 ====Coronary heart disease====
 A 2010 meta-analysis found that processed [[red meat]] (and all [[processed meat]]) was correlated with a higher risk of [[coronary heart disease]], although based on studies that separated the two, this meta-analysis found that red meat intake was not associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease. As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.
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 ====Dioxins====
 Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized with [[sewage sludge]]. Elevated [[Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds|dioxins]] may be present in meat from these cattle.
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 ==== ''E. coli'' recalls ====
 Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due to ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' (''E. coli'') contamination:
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 * September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated with ''E. coli'' 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History.
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 ==== Mad cow disease ====
 {{Main|Bovine spongiform encephalopathy}}
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 * In June 2005, Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in [[Texas]]. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that "privileged information." The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time when [[Oprah Winfrey]] raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show which aired 16 April 1996.
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 In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban. In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle,
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 ==Restrictions==
 === Religious and cultural prohibitions ===
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 Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits cow beef known as ''Go-Maans'' in [[Hindi]]. Bovines have a sacred status in [[culture of India|India]] especially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.
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 Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society. Since the [[Vedic period]], cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming like [[plough]]ing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent of [[Jainism]] and the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]]. In medieval India, [[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] issued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.
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 For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.
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 In [[ancient China]], the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role in [[agriculture]]. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.
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 During the season of [[Lent]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] periodically give up meat and poultry (and sometimes dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. Observant [[Jews]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] may not eat any meat or poultry which has not been [[Ritual slaughter#Jewish and Islamic ritual slaughter|slaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws]].
-=== Legal prohibition ===
+=== Legal prohibition === <!--T:64-->
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 ==== India ====
 {{Main|Cattle slaughter in India}}
 Most of the [[states of India|North Indian states]] prohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons. Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from their [[Diet (nutrition)|diets]]. Article 48 of the [[Constitution of India]] mandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle. [[Article 47 of the Constitution of India]] provides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as  "India's bovine burden."
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 In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food. Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export. In 2017, India sought a total "beef ban" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market.
-==== Nepal ====
+==== Nepal ==== <!--T:67-->
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 The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law.
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 ==== Cuba ====
 In 2003, Cuba banned cow slaughter due to severe shortage of milk and milk products. On 14 April 2021, the ban was loosened, allowing ranchers to do as they wish as long as state quotas were met and the health of the herd could be ensured.
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 {{div col end}}
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 == External links ==
 {{Sister project links|Beef}}
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 {{Beef}}
 {{Meat}}
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 [[Category:Beef| ]]
 [[Category:Cattle products]]
 {{二次利用|date=19 June 2025, at 20:46}}
+</translate>