Mortars and pestles have been used in cooking since the [[Stone Age]]; today they are typically associated with the pharmacy profession due to their historical use in preparing medicines. They are used in chemistry settings for pulverizing small amounts of chemicals; in arts and cosmetics for pulverizing pigments, binders, and other substances; in [[ceramic]]s for making [[Grog (clay)|grog]]; in [[masonry]] and other types of construction requiring pulverized materials. In cooking, they are typically used to crush spices, to make [[pesto]], and certain cocktails such as the [[mojito]], which requires the gentle crushing of sugar, ice, and mint leaves in the glass with a pestle.
The invention of mortars and pestles seems related to that of [[Quern-stone|quern-stones]], which use a similar principle of naturally indented, durable, hard stone bases and [[Mallet|mallets]] of stone or wood to process food and plant materials, clay, or minerals by stamping, crushing, pulverizing and grinding.
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乳鉢の重要な利点は、平らな挽き石で起こるような無駄やこぼれがなく、粉砕する材料を閉じ込めるためにより深いボウルを提供することである。もう一つの利点は、乳鉢を人が直立して隣に立ち、上半身と[[:en:force of gravity|重力]]の組み合わせた力を使ってより良く搗くことができるほど大きく作れることである。大きな乳鉢は、複数の乳棒を持つ数人が、より速く効率的に材料を搗くことを可能にする。人が隣に立って作業できる大きな乳鉢は、かがんで不快で反復的な手によるすり潰し運動をスライドさせて行う小さな挽き臼よりも、物理的に楽でより[[:en:ergonomics|人間工学的]]である（全身のより良い姿勢を確保できるため）。
A key advantage of the mortar is that it presents a deeper bowl for confining the material to be ground without the waste and spillage that occur with flat grinding stones. Another advantage is that the mortar can be made large enough for a person to stand upright and adjacent to it and use the combined strength of their upper body and the [[force of gravity]] for better stamping. Large mortars allow some individuals with several pestles to stamp the material faster and more efficiently. Working over a large mortar that a person can stand next to is physically easier and more [[ergonomics|ergonomic]] (by ensuring a better posture of the whole body) than for a small quern, where a person has to crouch and use the uncomfortable, repetitive motion of hand grinding by sliding.
Mortars and pestles predate modern [[Blender|blenders]] and [[Burr mill|grinders]] and can be described as having the function of small, mobile, hand-operated mills that do not require electricity or fuel to operate.
Large wooden mortars and wooden pestles would predate and lead to the invention of [[Butter churn|butter churns]], as domestication of livestock and use of dairy (during the [[Neolithic]]) came well after the mortar and pestle. Butter would be [[Churning (butter)|churned]] from cream or milk in a wooden container with a long wooden stick, very like the use of wooden mortars and pestles.
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==歴史{{Anchor|Hisotry}}==
==History==
[[File:Stone Age Stone Mortar & Pestle, Kebaran culture, 22000-18000 BP.jpg|upright|thumb|石器時代の石製乳鉢と乳棒、[[:en:Kebaran culture|ケバラン文化]]、紀元前22000年～18000年]]
[[File:Stone Age Stone Mortar & Pestle, Kebaran culture, 22000-18000 BP.jpg|upright|thumb|Stone Age stone mortar and pestle, [[Kebaran culture]], 22000–18000 BC]]
[[File:Raqefet Cave rock mortars.jpg|thumb|upright|イスラエルの[[:en:Raqefet Cave|ラケフェト洞窟]]にある石臼、[[:en:Stone Age|石器時代]]にビール作りで使用された]]
[[File:Raqefet Cave rock mortars.jpg|thumb|upright|Rock mortars in [[Raqefet Cave]], Israel, used for making beer during the [[Stone Age]]]]
Mortars and pestles were invented in the Stone Age when humans found that processing food and various other materials by grinding and crushing into smaller particles allowed for improved use and various advantages. Hard grains could be cooked and digested more easily if ground first, grinding potsherds into grog would vastly improve fired clay, and larger objects such as blocks of salt would be much easier to handle and use. Various stone mortars and pestles have been found, while wooden or clay ones would perish much more easily over time.
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科学者たちは、紀元前約35000年に遡る古代の乳鉢と乳棒を南西アジアで発見している。
Scientists have found ancient mortars and pestles in Southwest Asia that date back to approximately 35000 BC.
Stone mortars and pestles have also been used by the [[Kebaran culture]] ([[Levant|the Levant]] with [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]) from 22000 to 18000 BC to crush grains and other plant material. The Kebaran mortars that have been found are sculpted, slightly conical bowls of porous stone, and the pestles are made of a smoother type of stone.
Another Stone Age example is the rock mortars in the [[Raqefet Cave]] in [[Israel]], which are natural cavities in the cave floors, used by Late [[Natufian]]s around 10000 BC to grind cereals for brewing beer in the cavities. These rock mortars are large enough for a person to stand upright by them and crush the cereals inside the cavity with a long wooden pestle.
Ancient Africans, Sumerians, Egyptians, Thai, Laos People, Polynesians, Native Americans, Chinese, Indians, Greeks, Celts, and countless other people used mortars and pestles for processing materials and substances for cooking, arts, cosmetics, simple chemicals, ceramics and medicine.
Since the 14th century, bronze mortars became more popular than stone ones, especially for use in alchemy and early chemistry. Bronze mortars would become more elaborate than stone ones, had the advantage to be harder, and were easily cast with handles, knobs for handling, and spouts for easier pouring. However, the big disadvantage was that bronze would react with acids and other chemicals and corrode easily. Since the late 17th century, glazed porcelain mortars became very useful, since they would not be damaged by chemicals and would be easy to clean.
The English word ''mortar'' derives from Middle English ''{{Lang|enm|morter}}'', from old French ''{{Lang|fro|mortier}}'', from classical [[Latin]] ''{{Lang|la|mortarium}}'', meaning, among several other usages, "receptacle for pounding" and "product of grinding or pounding"; perhaps related to Sanskrit "mrnati" - to crush, to bruise.
The classical Latin {{Lang|la|pistillum}}, meaning "pounder", led to the English ''pestle''. Stemming from the pistillum, the word [[pesto]] in Italian cuisine means created with the pestle.
The Roman poet [[Juvenal]] applied both ''mortarium'' and ''pistillum'' to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of the mortar and pestle as a symbol of a pharmacist or apothecary.
Mortar as a synonym for cement in masonry came from the use of mortars and pestles to grind the materials for creating cement. The short [[Bombard (weapon)|bombard]] cannon was called "mortar" in French because the first versions of these cannons looked like big metal mortars of the Medieval Ages and they required to be filled with gunpowder, like a mortar would be full of powdered material.
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===文化と象徴における乳鉢と乳棒===
=== The mortar and pestle in culture and symbols ===
[[File:Bilibin. Baba Yaga.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Ivan Bilibin|イワン・ビリビン]]作、乳鉢に乗って飛ぶバーバ・ヤーガ]]
[[File:Bilibin. Baba Yaga.jpg|thumb|Baba Yaga flies in her mortar, by [[Ivan Bilibin]].]]
The antiquity of the mortar and pestle is well documented in early writing, such as the Egyptian [[Ebers Papyrus]] of around 1550 BC (the oldest preserved piece of medical literature) and the [[Old Testament]] (Numbers 11:8 and Proverbs 27:22).
In Russian and Eastern European folklore, [[Baba Yaga]] is described and pictured as flying through the forest standing inside a large wooden mortar (stupa), holding the long wooden pestle in one hand to remove obstacles in front of her, and using the broom in her other hand to sweep and remove her traces behind her. This seems as a trace of some ancient rituals connecting the witch symbols of Baba Yaga with the use of mortars in alchemy, pharmacy, and early chemistry, which were all seen as magic by uneducated people in the Medieval Ages.
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様々なアジアの神話や民間伝承には、乳鉢と乳棒を使って「[[:en:Elixir of life|不老不死の薬]]」（または[[Mochi/ja|餅]]を作るための[[Rice/ja|米]]）の材料を加工する[[:en:Moon rabbit|月のウサギ]]という共通のテーマがある。
In various Asian mythologies and folklores, there is a common theme of a [[Moon rabbit]], making use of a mortar and pestle to process the ingredients for the ''[[Elixir of life]]'' (or [[rice]] for making [[mochi]]).
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現代の薬局、特にドイツでは、今でも乳鉢と乳棒をロゴとして使用している。
Modern pharmacies, especially in Germany, still use mortars and pestles as logos.
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<span id="Uses"></span>
== Uses ==
== 用途{{Anchor|Uses}} ==
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===医学===
=== Medicine ===
[[File:PharmacistsMortar.svg|thumb|upright|right|象徴的な[[apothecary/ja|薬局]]の乳鉢と乳棒。[[medical prescription/ja|処方箋]]の記号'''{{not a typo|℞}}'''が表示されている]]
[[File:PharmacistsMortar.svg|thumb|upright|right|Iconic [[apothecary]] mortar and pestle, displaying the '''{{not a typo|℞}}''' symbol for [[medical prescription]]s]]
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乳鉢と乳棒は、[[Medical prescription/ja|調合薬]]を調製する前に様々な材料を砕くために、薬局で伝統的に使用されてきた。乳鉢と乳棒は、[[:en:Rod of Asclepius|アスクレピオスの杖]]、緑の十字などと並んで、薬学の最も広く普及している象徴の一つである。
Mortars and pestles were traditionally used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients before preparing an extemporaneous [[medical prescription|prescription]]. The mortar and pestle, with the [[Rod of Asclepius]], the Green Cross, and others, is one of the most pervasive symbols of pharmacology.
For pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of [[porcelain]], while the handle of the pestle is made of [[wood]]. This is known as a [[Wedgwood]] mortar and pestle and originated in 1759. Today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is known as [[trituration]].
Mortars and pestles are also used as [[drug paraphernalia]] to grind up pills to speed up absorption when they are [[eating|ingested]], or in preparation for [[Insufflation (medicine)|insufflation]]. To finely ground drugs, not available in the liquid [[dosage form]] are used also if patients need artificial nutrition such as [[parenteral nutrition]] or by [[nasogastric tube]].
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===食材の調理===
=== Food preparation ===
[[File:A traditional mortar.jpg|thumb|left|upright|インドの伝統的な乳鉢と乳棒]]
[[File:A traditional mortar.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A traditional Indian mortar and pestle]]
[[File:Bangkajf.JPG|upright|thumb|''Bangkang pinawa'', literally "boat (''[[bangka (boat)|bangka]]'') for unpolished rice", an ancient mortar and pestle from the [[Philippines]]]]
乳鉢は、[[Guacamole/ja|ワカモレ]]、[[Hummus/ja|フムス]]、[[Pesto/ja|ペスト]]（その名前は乳棒で潰すことから派生している）などの湿った、または油っぽい食材の調理にも使われる。また、スパイスを粉末に挽くのにも使われる。[[Molcajete/ja|モルカヘテ]]は、[[:en:Aztec|アステカ]]や[[:en:Maya civilization|マヤ文明]]を含む先スペイン期の[[:en:Mesoamerican|メソアメリカ]]文化で数千年前から使われてきたもので、[[:en:Basalt|玄武岩]]製で、メキシコ料理で広く使用されている。他の[[:en:Indigenous peoples of the Americas|アメリカ先住民]]の部族は、[[:en:Mortar hole|岩盤に彫られた乳鉢]]を使って[[Acorn/ja|ドングリ]]やその他のナッツを挽いた。このような窪みは彼らの居住地域で多く見られる。
Mortars are also used in cooking to prepare wet or oily ingredients such as [[guacamole]], [[hummus]], and [[pesto]] (which derives its name from the pestle pounding), as well as grinding spices into powder. The [[molcajete]], a version used by pre-Hispanic [[Mesoamerican]] cultures including the [[Aztec]] and [[Maya civilization|Maya]], stretching back several thousand years, is made of [[basalt]] and is used widely in Mexican cooking. Other [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] nations use [[mortar hole|mortars carved into the bedrock]] to grind [[acorn]]s and other nuts. Many such depressions can be found in their territories.
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[[:en:Japan|日本]]では、[[Mochi (food)/ja|餅]]を作るのに非常に大きな乳鉢と木製の[[Mallet/ja|杵]]が使われる。通常のサイズの日本の乳鉢と乳棒は、それぞれ「[[Suribachi and surikogi/ja|すり鉢]]」と「[[Suribachi and surikogi/ja|すりこぎ]]」と呼ばれる。[[:en:Granite|花崗岩]]製の乳鉢と乳棒は[[:en:Southeast Asia|東南アジア]]、[[:en:Pakistan|パキスタン]]、[[:en:India|インド]]で使われている。インドでは、様々な珍味や日常の料理のためのスパイス混合物を作るのに広く使われている。電動グラインダーの出現により、乳鉢と乳棒の使用は減少した。様々な[[:en:Hindu|ヒンドゥー教]]の儀式（結婚式や[[:en:Upanayanam|ウパナヤナム]]など）では、これらの乳鉢で[[Turmeric/ja|ターメリック]]を砕くのが伝統である。
In [[Japan]], very large mortars are used with wooden [[mallet]]s to prepare [[Mochi (food)|mochi]]. A regular-sized [[Japan]]ese mortar and pestle are called a [[suribachi and surikogi|''suribachi'' and ''surikogi'']], respectively. [[Granite]] mortars and pestles are used in [[Southeast Asia]], as well as [[Pakistan]] and [[India]]. In [[India]], it is used extensively to make spice mixtures for various delicacies as well as day-to-day dishes. With the advent of motorized grinders, the use of the mortar and pestle has decreased. It is traditional in various [[Hindu]] ceremonies (such as weddings, and [[upanayanam]]) to crush [[turmeric]] in these mortars.
In [[Malay language|Malay]], it is known as ''batu lesung''. Large [[rock (geology)|stone]] mortars, with long (2–3 foot) wood pestles were used in [[West Asia]] to grind meat for a type of [[meatloaf]], or [[kibbeh]], as well as the [[hummus]] variety known as [[masabcha]]. In [[Indonesia]] mortar is known as ''Cobek'' or ''Tjobek'' and pestle is known as ''Ulekan'' or ''Oelekan''. The chobek is shaped like a deep saucer or plate. The ulekan is either pistol-shaped or ovoid. It is often used to make fresh [[sambal]], a spicy chili [[condiment]], hence the ''sambal ulek/oelek'' denotes its process using pestle. It is also used to grind peanuts and other ingredients to make peanut sauce for [[gado-gado]].
[[File:Wooden rice mortar 3.jpg|alt=A large wooden mortar with a wooden pestle lying horizontally across the top. |thumb|A wooden mortar and pestle was discovered at Briar's plantation in [[South Carolina]]. It was found in the rice loft and presumably used for dehulling. ]]
Large mortars and pestles are still commonly used in developing countries to husk and dehull grain. These are usually made of wood, and operated by one or more persons.
In the [[Philippines]], mortar and pestles are specifically associated with de-husking [[rice]]. A notable traditional mortar and pestle is the boat-shaped ''bangkang pinawa'' or ''bangkang pangpinawa'', literally "boat (''[[bangka (boat)|bangka]]'') for unpolished rice", usually carved from a block of [[Vitex parviflora|molave]] or other hardwood. It is pounded by two or three people. The name for the mortar, ''lusong'', is the origin of the name of the largest island in the Philippines, [[Luzon]].
Large wooden mortars and pestles have been used to hull grain in West Africa for centuries. When enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas, they brought this technology—and knowledge of how to use it—with them. During the [[Middle Passage]], some slave ships carried un-hulled rice, and enslaved African women were tasked with using mortars and pestles to prepare it for consumption. In both colonial North and South America, rice continued to be primarily milled by hand in this way until around the mid-1700s when mechanical mills became more widespread.
Good mortar and pestle-making materials must be hard enough to crush the substance rather than be worn away by it. They cannot be too [[brittle]] either, or they will break during the pounding and grinding. The material should also be cohesive so that small bits of the mortar or pestle do not mix in with the ingredients. Smooth and non-porous materials are chosen that will not absorb or trap the substances being ground.
[[File:Pilon.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Women in [[Cape Verde]] use a large mortar with multiple pestles]]
[[outline of food preparation/ja|食品調理]]において、粗い素材や吸収性の高い素材は、以前に調理した食材の強い風味が後で調理する食品に影響を与えてしまう可能性がある。また、乳鉢や乳棒に残った食品の粒子が微生物の増殖を助けることも考えられる。医薬品を扱う場合、以前に調製された薬剤が相互作用したり混ざったりして、現在使用している材料を汚染する可能性がある。
In [[outline of food preparation|food preparation]], a rough or absorbent material may cause the strong [[Flavor (taste)|flavor]] of a past ingredient to be tasted in food prepared later. Also, the food particles left in the mortar and on the pestle may support the growth of [[microorganism]]s. When dealing with [[medication]]s, the previously prepared [[drugs]] may interact or mix, contaminating the currently used ingredients.
Rough ceramic mortar and pestle sets can be used to reduce substances to very fine powders, but stain easily and are brittle. Porcelain mortars are sometimes conditioned for use by grinding some sand to give them a rougher surface which helps to reduce the particle size. Glass mortars and pestles are fragile, but stain-resistant and suitable for use with liquids. However, they do not grind as finely as the ceramic type.
Other materials used include stone, often [[marble]] or [[agate]], wood (which is highly absorbent), [[bamboo]], iron, [[steel]], [[brass]], and [[molcajete|basalt]]. Mortar and pestle sets made from the wood of old grape vines have proved reliable for grinding salt and pepper at the dinner table. Uncooked rice is sometimes ground in mortars to clean them. This process must be repeated until the rice comes out completely white. Some stones, such as [[molcajete]], need to be seasoned first before use. Metal mortars are kept lightly oiled.
Since the results obtained with hand grinding are not easily reproducible, most laboratories use automatic mortar grinders. Grinding time and pressure of the mortar can be adjusted and fixed, saving time and labor.
ギリシャ製の青銅合金製乳鉢と乳棒
エチオピアで作られるミトミタ
ネパールの伝統的な乳鉢と乳棒
モルカヘテとテホロテ、メキシコ
ラオス式の乳鉢と乳棒
植物を粉砕するために使用される乳鉢
木製の乳鉢と乳棒
