Halal/ja

ハラールという言葉。イスラム教徒にとって、レストラン、店、製品における視覚的マーカーとして使われる。

ハラール（حلال）は、アラビア語で「許された」を意味する言葉である。この用語は、イスラム教の食に関する規定、特にイスラム式食肉処理に従って食肉処理された肉と関連付けられることが多いが、ビジネス、金融（高利貸し（リバ）の禁止など）、および日常生活における倫理的慣行も規定している。これには、公正、社会正義、動物の扱いなど、より広範な倫理的配慮が含まれる。ハラールの概念は、イスラム教の慣行の中心であり、クルアーンとスンナ（預言者ムハンマドの教えと慣行）に由来する。

クルアーンにおいて、ハラールという用語はハラーム（'forbidden, unlawful'）という用語と対比されている。ハラールまたはハラームとされるものの指針は、イスラーム法学（フィクフ）に定められており、学者はイスラームの原則を順守するためにこれらの指針を解釈する。この二項対立は、「五つの規定」として知られる、より複雑な分類に発展した。: 義務、推奨、中立、嫌悪、禁止である。 イスラーム法学者の間では、ハラールという用語がこれら5つの分類のうち最初の2つを指すのか、あるいは最初の4つを指すのかについて意見が分かれている。近年、大衆を動員しようとするイスラーム運動や、一般大衆向けに執筆する著作家は、ハラールとハラームのより単純な区別を強調している。

現代社会において、ハラールの概念は個人の行動や食事制限を超え、特に食品、製薬、化粧品、金融分野における世界的な産業となっている。ハラール認証機関は、製品やサービスがムスリムが消費するために必要な基準を満たしていることを保証し、世界中の多くの企業が、特に世界のムスリム人口の増加に伴い、ハラール製品に対する需要の高まりに応えるためにハラール認証を求めている。ハラール製品やサービスに対する需要の増加は、特にマレーシア、インドネシア、中東など、ムスリム人口が多い国々において、ハラール経済の成長を促している。多くの非ムスリムが多数を占める国々もまた、自国のムスリム市民や世界の消費者のニーズを満たすために、ハラール市場に参入している。

クルアーンにおいて

ハラールとハラームという語は、合法または許容されるものと、非合法または禁止されるものの範疇を示すためにクルアーンで用いられる一般的な用語である。クルアーンにおいて、語根ḥ-l-lは合法性を意味し、また巡礼者が儀礼的な状態から退出し、俗なる状態に入ることを示す場合もある。これら両義において、それは語根ḥ-r-m（cf. ハラームおよびイフラーム）によって伝えられる意味の反対を持つ。文字通りの意味では、語根ḥr-mは解消（例えば、誓いの破棄）や降臨（例えば、神の怒りの降臨）を指すことがある。合法性は通常、クルアーンにおいて、神を明示的または暗示的な主語として、動詞ahalla（'to make lawful'）によって示される。

食物

詳細は「:en:Islamic dietary laws」を参照

台湾・台北のレストランに掲げられた中国語のハラール表示（清真, qīng zhēn）

イスラム教は、特定にハディースやクルアーンにおいて禁止されていない限り、すべての食物を一般的にハラールと見なす。具体的に、ハラール食品は以下の条件を満たすものである。

1. 機械、設備、および/または器具を用いて製造、生産、加工、処理、保存され、それらがイスラム法（シャリーア）に従って清浄化されていること。
2. イスラム法に従ってムスリムが食べることを禁じられている成分を一切含まないこと。

ハラーム（非ハラール）食品の最も一般的な例は豚肉である。豚肉は、ムスリムが消費してはならない肉として唯一明確に分類されている（クルアーン第2章173節および第16章115節）。他の純粋ではない状態の食物もまたハラームと見なされる。非豚肉食品の基準には、その由来、動物の死因、加工方法が含まれる。イスラム教の学者の大多数は、貝類やその他の海産物をハラールと見なしている。ベジタリアン料理は、アルコールを含まない限りハラールである。

ムスリムは、すべての食物（特に加工食品）だけでなく、化粧品や医薬品のような非食物についても、それがハラールであることを確認しなければならない。これらの製品にはしばしば、動物由来の副産物や、ムスリムが体内に取り入れたり体に使用したりすることを許されない成分が含まれている。ムスリムが摂取することをハラールと見なされない食品には、血液やアルコール飲料などの陶酔性物質が含まれる。

ムスリムが他に食べるものがなく、飢え死にする場合には、非ハラール食品を食べることが許される。

いくつかの食品会社は、ハラール加工食品や製品を提供しており、その中にはハラールのフォアグラ、春巻き、チキンナゲット、ラビオリ、ラザニア、ピザ、ベビーフードが含まれる。ハラールの冷凍調理済み食品は、イギリスやアメリカのムスリムにとって成長中の消費市場であり、販売業者の増加に伴って提供されている。

遺伝子組み換え作物（GMO食品）に関する意見は分かれているが、それを消費することを禁じる広く受け入れられた禁止は存在しない。一部の聖職者や学者は、GMO食品の生産方法は人間の福祉に寄与するためハラールであると主張し、支持を表明している。GMOに反対する声は、神がすべてを完全に創造したので、食用作物を遺伝子操作する必要はなく、人間は神が創造したものを操作する権利を持たないと主張する。他の者は、豚由来の遺伝子を用いて生産された特定のGMO食品を理論的に摂取することについて懸念を表明している。

Halal meat

Main article: Dhabihah

Halal meat section at a grocery store in Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada

Muslims believe in what they see as the ethical treatment of animals. Halal practices align with this philosophy by promoting kindness, compassion, and humane treatment throughout the entire lifecycle of the animal. The emphasis on swift and painless slaughter respects the animal's dignity and minimizes suffering.

Halal meat must come from a supplier that uses halal practices. Dhabīḥah (ذَبِيْحَة) is the prescribed method of slaughter for all meat sources, excluding fish and other sealife, per Islamic law. This method of slaughtering animals consists of using a sharp knife to make an incision that cuts the front of the throat, oesophagus and jugular veins but not the spinal cord. The head of an animal that is slaughtered using halal methods should be aligned with the qiblah (the direction a Muslim faces when praying). In addition to the direction, permitted animals should be slaughtered upon utterance of the Islamic prayer "Bismillah, Allahu Akbar" (In the name of God, God is greatest).

The slaughter must be performed by a Muslim. Carrion (carcasses of dead animals, such as animals who died in the wild) cannot be eaten. Additionally, an animal that has been strangled, beaten (to death), killed by a fall, gored (to death), savaged by a beast of prey (unless finished off by a human), or sacrificed on a stone altar cannot be eaten.

Compatibility with other religions

Main articles: Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws, Christian dietary laws, and Diet in Sikhism

Animals slaughtered by People of the Book (Jews and Christians) can also be considered halal if the slaughter is carried out by jugular slice, the blood drained and the name of Allah invoked. As a result, kosher meat is permitted by some Muslim communities, and is sometimes substituted for halal meat.

Sikhism forbids eating meat from animals that were slaughtered slowly or with religious ritual, referred to as kutha meat. This includes halal meat preparation. The religiously recommended method of slaughter among Sikhs, known as jhatka, is likewise incompatible with halal principles, as with this method not all of the blood is drained from the meat.

Concerns for animal welfare

A butcher shop in Amman, Jordan

Eid al-Adha's meat distribution in Pakistan

Stunning of the animal is only permitted if it is necessary to calm down a violent animal. British supermarkets report the use of stunning before slaughter for halal meats. The 2011 UK Food Standards Agency figures suggest that 84% of cattle, 81% of sheep and 88% of chickens slaughtered for halal meat were stunned before they died. Tesco says "the only difference between the halal meat it sells and other meat is that [the animal] was blessed as [it] was killed."

Concerns about animal suffering from slaughter without prior stunning has resulted in the ban of slaughter of unstunned animals in Denmark, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.

Certification

An example of a halal certificate from India

Certification for halal products is given by legal authorities in most Muslim-majority countries, while in other countries, it is voluntarily acquired by companies and issued by non-governmental organizations for an annual fee.

Halal certification in the US

Halal certifications are provided by a number of agencies in the United States. Depending on how the certification will be used for domestic or international export, the certification may need to be done by a qualified entity. If it's for domestic use a local agency with proper knowledge, training and background can issue a halal certificate. If the certificate is going to be used for export then the halal certifier needs to be accredited by the country the halal product is being exported to. A company that needs to certify its product must do their due diligence when hiring a certifier. There are a number of halal certifiers in the US including ISWA Halal; ISA Halal; Halal Monitoring Services (HMS), based out of Chicago, Illinois; the Halal Food Standards Alliance of America (HFSAA), based out of Oakland, California; and Halal Watch World, based in New York. Another agency that can help companies identify and screen the proper halal certifier is the US Halal Consultants based in Fairfax, Virginia.

Criticism

In Australia, halal food certification has been criticized by groups who claim that certifying foods as halal leads to consumers subsidizing a particular religious belief. Australian Federation of Islamic Councils spokesman Keysar Trad told a journalist in July 2014 that this was an attempt to exploit anti-Muslim sentiments in Australia. A study in 2022 showed that halal certifications did not necessarily reflect the extent to which a halal product came about in whole, and called for greater means of assurance and transparent qualitative methods of halal certification.

Business

The Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry estimated the global industry value of halal food consumer purchases to be $1.1 trillion in 2013, accounting for 16.6 percent of the global food and beverage market, with an annual growth of 6.9 percent. Growth regions include Indonesia ($197 million market value in 2012) and Turkey ($100 million). The European Union market for halal food has an estimated annual growth of around 15 percent and is worth an estimated $30 billion, approximately $8 billion of which are accounted for in France.

The halal food and beverage industry has also made a significant impact on supermarkets and other food business such as restaurants. French supermarkets had halal food sales totalling $210 million in 2011, a 10.5% growth from five years prior. In France, the market for halal foods is even larger than the market for other types of common foods. For example, in 2010, the market for halal foods and beverages in France was nearly twice that of organic foods. Auchan, a large French supermarket chain, now sells 80 certified halal meat products, along with 30 pre-cooked halal meals and 40 frozen halal products. Upscale restaurants and catering services have also added halal foods to their menus. In addition, many beverage companies such as Evian have taken the effort to add a halal stamp on their products to show that their water and other beverages are pure and not haram or forbidden under Islamic law.

Interaction with global regulation

Halal standards and regulations have been considered as an obstacle to international trade while the discrimination towards import products also lacks transparency. Trade disputes related to halal have emerged even among Muslim and Islamic countries, for instance at the regional level within the ASEAN.

European Union

On 17 December 2020, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that member countries may ban religious slaughter to promote animal welfare and could impose non-lethal stunning before the killing of animals. The ruling was in response to a challenge to a 2017 Flemish government prohibition on the killing of animals without prior non-lethal (also called reversible) stunning by Jewish and Muslim associations.

India

Main article: Hindu–Islamic relations § Foods

The Muslim community has been receptive of halal food and certification. Members of the right-wing Hindutva groups in India have protested against the sale of Halal food in India. Bajrang Dal, Vishva Hindu Parishad and other Hindutva groups have run door to door campaigns in the state of Karnataka, asking people not to purchase halal meat. In March 2022 the Hindutva group Bajrang Dal physically attacked a Muslim meat seller, five persons were arrested in the incident. In March 2022, C. T. Ravi, national general secretary for the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party, referred to halal food as "economic jihad".

United Kingdom

August 2012年現在, an estimated 27 UK Tesco supermarkets, in addition to most urban Asda and many Morrisons supermarkets, had halal meat counters, selling meat approved for consumption by Muslims. According to the Food Standards Agency Animal Welfare Update report, published September 2017, 16 percent of animals slaughtered by the halal method were not stunned before slaughter, which violates RSPCA standards on animal welfare. However, it is legal in the UK due to an exemption in the law granted to Jews and Muslims.

Non-food applications

Main articles: Halal tourism and Islamic banking and finance

In addition to food and diet, a halal lifestyle can include travel, finance, clothing, media, recreation, cosmetics. A halal lifestyle can even involve professional practises ranging from industrial and manufacturing logistics to supply chains.

Pharmaceuticals

Some Muslims refrain from using pharmaceuticals that are not halal. This distinction is most noticeably practiced in Malaysia, which has a large halal pharmaceutical industry, complete with government regulations to make sure the products are tayyib. On the other hand, the Quran obliges Muslims to seek treatment, including preventive ones, for diseases regardless of what the care provider believes in. In particular, medicines containing animal products like gelatin have been deemed permissible by a 1995 council of Islamic jurisprudents, making such distinction unnecessary. The decentralized nature of Islam allows both opinions to exist.

Vaccines

See also: Vaccination and religion

The controversy over pharmaceuticals has led to the refusal of childhood vaccination in some Muslim-majority countries, despite many religious leaders expressly endorsing vaccination. It is also a concern in the rollout of the COVID-19 vaccine.

Personal care

Feminine hygiene products and nappies have been certified as halal in Malaysia. Such certification is not required by the religion, nor is there a demand from Muslims. Critics consider such "unnecessary" certification as little more than a marketing gimmick, e.g., halal labels on clearly vegetarian soft drinks or naturally grown food items like cereals, pulses, vegetables and processed foods made exclusively from vegetable products.

関連項目

• イスラム倫理
• アル・ジャミヤ - シーア派のイスラム教の聖典であり、すべてのハラールの詳細が記されている。
• イスティラール
• オーストラリアのハラール認証
• ヨーロッパのハラール認証
• 食のタブー
• カシュルート（ユダヤ教食物律）
• キリスト教の食物律
• スコットランドの豚肉のタブー

参考文献

• Yungman, Limor, "Food", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I.

外部リンク

• What is halal meat?
• Halal World certificate