History of coffee/ja: Difference between revisions

''コーヒー''という言葉は、1582年に[[:en:Dutch language|オランダ語]]の''[[Coffee/ja|{{lang|nl|koffie|nocat=yes}}]]''を介して英語に入った。これは[[:en:Ottoman Turkish language|オスマン・トルコ語]]の「[[:en:Kahvesi|{{lang|ota-Latn|kahve|nocat=yes}} ({{lang|ota|قهوه|nocat=yes}})]]」から借用され、さらにこれは[[アラビア語]]の「[[:en:Qahwah|{{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah|nocat=yes}} ({{lang|ar|قَهْوَة|nocat=yes}})]]」から借用されたものである。中世の[[:en:lexicographer|アラビア語辞書編纂者]]たちは伝統的に、「{{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}}」の語源は、その独特の濃い色から「[[wine/ja|ワイン]]」を意味するとし、動詞「{{lang|ar-Latn|qahiya}} ({{lang|ar|قَهِيَ}})」、すなわち「[[Anorectic/ja|食欲がない]]」に由来するとした。しかし、「{{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}}」という言葉は、飲み物や豆を指して「暗い」という意味であった可能性が最も高い。セム語派には「''qhh''」という語根があり、「濃い色」を意味し、それがこの飲み物の自然な呼称となった。この言葉が[[:en:Kaffa Province|カッファ県]]（コーヒーの起源である[[:en:Abyssinia|アビシニア]]の一部）というエチオピアの州にちなんで名付けられたという証拠はなく、またその反対を主張する有力な根拠もないし、アラビア語の「{{lang|ar-Latn|quwwa}}」(「power」)に由来するという証拠もない。

イエメンのスーフィーたちは、この飲み物を集中力の助けとして、また神の名を唱える際の精神的な陶酔の一種として利用した。スーフィーたちは夜間の礼拝中に覚醒状態を保つためにそれを用いた。1414年までにこの植物はメッカで知られるようになり、1500年代初頭には[[:en:Mocha, Yemen|イエメンのモカ港]]から[[:en:Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|エジプトと北アフリカのマムルーク朝]]へと広まった。[[:en:Sufism|スーフィズム]]に関連して、[[:en:Al-Azhar University|アズハル大学]]周辺のカイロ（エジプト）には無数のコーヒーハウスが出現した。これらのコーヒーハウスはシリア、特に国際都市[[:en:Aleppo|アレッポ]]にも開設され、その後1554年には[[Ottoman Empire|オスマン帝国]]の首都[[:en:Constantinople|コンスタンティノープル]]にも広がった。コーヒーは1573年に[[:en:Leonhard Rauwolf|ドイツ人医師植物学者レオンハルト・ラウヴォルフ]]によって「''chaube''」としてアレッポで言及されており、これはコーヒーについて言及した最初のヨーロッパ人である。ラウヴォルフの記述に続いて、他のヨーロッパ人旅行者による記述が続いた。

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Coffee also found its way to the [[Isle of Bourbon]], now known as Réunion, in the [[Indian Ocean]]. The plant produced smaller beans and was deemed a different variety of arabica known as ''var. Bourbon''. The Santos coffee of [[Brazil]] and the [[Oaxaca]] coffee of Mexico are the progeny of that Bourbon tree. Circa 1727, the [[King of Portugal]] sent [[Francisco de Melo Palheta]] to [[French Guiana]] to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco initially had difficulty obtaining these seeds, but he captivated the French Governor's wife, and she sent him enough seeds and shoots to commence the coffee industry of Brazil. However, cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822, leading to the clearing of massive tracts of the [[Atlantic Forest]], first from the vicinity of Rio and later [[São Paulo]] for coffee plantations.

In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]] (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey.

After the [[Boston Tea Party]] of 1773, large numbers of Americans switched to drinking coffee during the [[American Revolution]] because drinking tea had become unpatriotic.

Cultivation was taken up by many countries in the latter half of the 19th century, and in almost all of them it involved the large-scale displacement and exploitation of indigenous people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups and bloody suppressions of peasants. For example, [[Guatemala]] started producing coffee in the 1500s but lacked the manpower to harvest the coffee beans. As a result, the Guatemalan government forced indigenous people to work on the fields. This led to a strain in the indigenous and Guatemalan people's relationship that still exists today. A notable exception is [[Coffee production in Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] where a lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th centuries.

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In the 20th century Latin American countries faced a possible economic collapse. Before [[World War II]] Europe was consuming large amounts of coffee. Once the war started Latin America lost 40% of its market and was on the verge of economic collapse. Coffee was and is a Latin American commodity. The United States saw this and talked with the Latin American countries and as a result the producers agreed on an equitable division of the U.S. market. The U.S. government monitored this agreement. For the period that this plan was followed the value of coffee doubled, which greatly benefited coffee producers and the Latin American countries.

[[Brazil]] became the largest producer of coffee in the world by 1852 and it has held that status ever since. It dominated world production, exporting more coffee than the rest of the world combined, from 1850 to 1950. The period since 1950 saw the widening of the playing field due to the emergence of several other major producers, notably [[Colombia]], [[Ivory Coast]], Ethiopia, and, most recently, [[Vietnam]], which overtook Colombia and became the second-largest producer in 1999 and reached 15% market share by 2011.

Recent additions to the coffee market are [[latte]]s, [[Frappuccino]]s and other sugary coffee drinks. This has caused coffee houses to be able to use cheaper coffee beans in their coffee.

==Asia==

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===India===

{{Main|Coffee production in India}}

[[File:2015 0117 Monsooned Malabar beans unroosted.jpg|thumb|[[Monsooned Malabar]] arabica, compared with green Yirgachefe beans from [[Coffee production in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]]]

Coffee's introduction to India is credited to the "[[Mughal Empire|Mughal era]]", particularly through a Sufi saint named "[[Baba Budan]]".

In the 17th century, the first record of coffee growing in [[India]] is following the introduction of coffee beans from [[Yemen]], during his pilgrimage to Mecca. He planted these beans in the [[Chikmagalur district|Chandragiri hills]] of Karnataka, which are now named [[Baba Budangiri|Baba Budan Giri]] in his honor. This act marked the beginning of coffee cultivation in India, extending south to [[Kodagu]].

In India, the word for coffee is "[[Indian filter coffee|kaapi]]" in several South Indian languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada.

[[Coffee production in India]] is dominated in the hill tracts of [[South India]]n states, with the state of [[Karnataka]] accounting 53% followed by [[Kerala]] 28% and [[Tamil Nadu]] 11% of production of 8,200 [[Tonne]]s. Indian coffee is said to be the finest coffee grown in the shade rather than direct sunlight anywhere in the world. There are approximately 250,000 coffee growers in India; 98% of them are small growers. As of 2009, the production of coffee in India was only 4.5% of the total production in the world. Almost 80% of the country's coffee production is exported. Of that which is exported, 70% is bound for Germany, Russian federation, Spain, Belgium, Slovenia, United States, Japan, Greece, Netherlands and France, and Italy accounts for 29% of the exports. Most of the export is shipped through the [[Suez Canal]].

Coffee is grown in three regions of India with Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu forming the traditional coffee growing region of South India, followed by the new areas developed in the non-traditional areas of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] in the eastern coast of the country and with a third region comprising the states of [[Assam]], Manipur, [[Meghalaya]], Mizoram, [[Tripura]], Nagaland and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] of [[Northeastern India]], popularly known as "Seven Sister States of India".

Indian coffee, grown mostly in southern India under monsoon rainfall conditions, is also termed as "Indian monsooned coffee". Its flavour is defined as: "The best Indian coffee reaches the flavour characteristics of Pacific coffees, but at its worst it is simply bland and uninspiring". The two well-known species of coffee grown are the [[Arabica coffee|Arabica]] and [[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]. The first variety that was introduced in the [[Baba Budan Giri]] hill ranges of Karnataka in the 17th century was marketed over the years under the brand names of Kent and [[S.795 coffee|S.795]]. Coffee is served in a distinctive drip-style "[[Indian filter coffee|filter coffee]]" across [[Southern India]].

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==== Chikmagalur ====

Coffee is the cornerstone of [[Chikmagalur district|Chikmagalur's]] economy. Chikmagalur is the birthplace of coffee in India, where the seed was first sown about 350 years ago.

Coffee is cultivated in Chikmagalur district in an area of around 85,465 hectares with Arabica being the dominant variety grown in upper hills and Robusta being the major variety in the low-level hills. There are around 15,000 coffee growers in this district with 96% of them being small growers with holdings of less than or equal to 4 hectares. The average production is 55,000 MT: 35,000 MT of Arabica and 20,000 MT of Robusta.

Arabica is a species of coffee that is also known as the "[[Arabic coffee|coffee shrub of Arabia"]], "mountain coffee" or "arabica coffee". Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, being grown in southwest Arabia for well over 1,000 years. It is considered to produce better coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora (Robusta). Arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee.

[[Robusta coffee|Robusta]] is a species of coffee which has its origins in western Africa. It is grown mostly in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called Conillon. It is also grown in Southeast Asia where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century. In recent years Vietnam, which only produces Robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the world's single largest exporter. Approximately one third of the coffee produced in the world is Robusta.

Coffee was introduced to Japan by the Dutch in the 17th century but remained a curiosity until the lifting of trade restrictions in 1858. The first European-style coffeehouse opened in Tokyo in 1888 and closed four years later. By the early 1930s there were over 30,000 coffeehouses across the country; availability in the wartime and immediate postwar period dropped to nearly zero, then rapidly increased as import barriers were removed. The introduction of freeze-dried instant coffee, canned coffee, and franchises such as [[Starbucks]] and [[Doutor Coffee]] in the late 20th century continued this trend, to the point that Japan is now one of the leading per capita coffee consumers in the world.

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===South Korea===

Coffee's first notable Korean enthusiasts were 19th century emperors [[Sunjong]] and [[Gojong of the Korean Empire|Gojong]], who preferred to consume it after western-style banquets. After Korea's first coffee shop opened 1902, coffee was enjoyed by Korea's elites, who viewed coffee as a symbol of western culture and status. Coffee was later introduced to the general public in the 1950s by American soldiers stationed in Korea. The number of small, individually owned coffee shops, called ''dabang'', increased rapidly; by the late 1950s, there were over 3,000 of them. In 1976, Korean beverage company Dongsuh Foods introduced the ''coffee mix'', a mixture of instant coffee, creamer and sugar packaged in individual packets. This product contributed to the popularization of instant coffee, and later became an office staple after the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|Asian financial crisis]]. By the 1980s instant coffee and canned coffee had become fairly popular, with a more minor tradition of independently owned coffeehouses in larger cities. Toward the end of the century the growth of franchises such as [[Caffe Bene]] and Starbucks brought about a greater demand for European-style coffee, and led to the decline of dabangs.

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===Indonesia===

{{Main|Coffee production in Indonesia}}

Coffee was first introduced by the Dutch during colonization in the late 17th century. After several years coffee was planted on Indonesia Archipelago. Many coffee specialties are from the Indonesian Archipelago. The colloquial name for coffee, Java, comes from the time when most of Europe and America's coffee was grown in Java. Today Indonesia is one of the largest coffee producers in the world, mainly for export. However, coffee is enjoyed in various ways around the archipelago, for example, the traditional "[[kopi tubruk]]".

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===Philippines===

The Philippines is one of the few countries that produces the four varieties of commercially viable coffee: Arabica, Liberica (Barako), Excelsa and Robusta. Although it is generally said that coffee was introduced to [[Lipa, Batangas|Lipa]] in 1740 by a Spanish [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] friar, there is actually little first-hand evidence to substantiate this. Regardless, by the early 19th century, coffee was being cultivated throughout the Philippines and subsequently exported to America and Australia, followed by Europe with the opening of the [[Suez Canal]]. Lipa is commonly attributed as being the center of this cultivation, until roughly 1889, when its industry abruptly failed, likely due to pests, [[Hemileia vastatrix|coffee rust]] (which the Philippines had managed to avoid for longer than the rest of the world), and [[Philippine Revolution|political factors]].

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Following this destruction, the Philippines' place in the global coffee supply chain faltered, and would be slow to recover. Throughout the 20th century, various government initiatives were implemented to revive the industry, despite that the Philippines would gradually begin importing more instant coffee than it was exporting. Regardless, a coffee culture has been developing since the 1990s, following the Philippines joining the [[International Coffee Organization]] in 1980, and now many specialty coffee shops can be found around the country.

Vietnam is one of the world's main coffee exporters. Arabica is the first imported coffee variety to Vietnam since 1857. Initially being grown in the northern provinces, the cultivation of coffee spread until it reached the Central and Western Highlands, which now produce a majority of Vietnam's coffee. Most notably among these is the city of [[Buôn Ma Thuột]], which is known as the "coffee capital of Vietnam".

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[[Trung Nguyen]] Coffee was founded in 1996 by [[Dang Le Nguyen Vu]], and is the premier coffee brand in Vietnam to this day.

The first step in Europeans' wresting the means of production was effected by [[Nicolaes Witsen]], the enterprising burgomaster of Amsterdam and member of the governing board of the [[Dutch East India Company]] who urged [[Joan van Hoorn]], the Dutch governor at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] in Yemen, the source of Europe's supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies; the project of raising many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with such success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europe's demand with "Java coffee" by 1719. Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in [[Ceylon]], [[Sumatra]] and other Sunda islands. Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the [[Hortus Botanicus Leiden|Hortus Botanicus of Leiden]], whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the ''Jardin du Roi'', predecessor of the [[Jardin des Plantes]], in Paris.

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The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by [[Gabriel DeClieu|Captain Gabriel des Clieux]], who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist [[Antoine de Jussieu]], who was loath to disfigure the king's coffee tree. Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, shared his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces jealous of the Batavian trade. Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in [[Guadeloupe]] and [[Saint-Domingue]] in addition to [[Martinique]], where a blight had struck the [[cacao plantation]]s, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a space of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded.

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The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggled seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm originally taken from Yemen to Batavia, from [[French Guiana]]. By the 1800s, Brazil's harvests would turn coffee from an elite indulgence to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on [[Slavery in Brazil|slave labor from Africa]] for the viability of the plantations until the [[Lei Áurea|abolition of slavery in 1888]]. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of [[tobacco smoking]] all over the continent during the course of the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648).

For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolist in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such as [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Vietnam]], now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995. Nearly all of the coffee grown there is Robusta.

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Despite the origins of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the twentieth century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the environs of [[Harar]] in the northeast. The [[Kingdom of Kaffa]], home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of [[Gambela, Ethiopia|Gambela]]. 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927–1928 over 4&nbsp;million kilograms passed through that port. Coffee plantations were also developed in [[Arsi Province]] at the same time and were eventually exported by means of the [[Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia|Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway]]. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of "Harari" coffee by 1925, and reached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936.

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Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of {{convert|500|acre|km2}} began to be developed in an area between northern [[New South Wales]] and [[Cooktown, Queensland|Cooktown]]. Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981.