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{{Short description|Varieties of peppers of Capsicum genus}}
[[File:Madame Jeanette and other chillies.jpg|thumb|Chili peppers of varied colours and sizes: green [[Bird's eye chili|bird's eye]], yellow [[Madame Jeanette]], red [[Cayenne pepper|cayenne]] ]]
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'''Chili peppers''', also spelled '''chile''' or '''chilli''' ({{etymology|nci|{{wikt-lang|nci|chīlli}}|}} {{IPA|nah|ˈt͡ʃiːlːi||Chilli.ogg}}), are varieties of [[fruit#Berries|berry-fruit]] plants from the [[genus]] ''[[Capsicum]]'', which are members of the nightshade family [[Solanaceae]], cultivated for their [[pungency]]. They are used as a [[spice]] to add [[pungency]] (spicy heat) in many cuisines. [[Capsaicin]] and the related [[Capsaicin#Capsaicinoids|capsaicinoids]] give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or [[topical application|applied topically]]. Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types of [[chili powder]], each offering its own taste and heat level.
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Chili peppers originated in Central or South America and were first cultivated in Mexico. European explorers brought chili peppers back to the [[Old World]] in the late 16th century as part of the [[Columbian Exchange]], which led to the cultivation of [[List of Capsicum cultivars|multiple varieties]] across the world for food and traditional medicine. Five ''Capsicum'' species have been widely cultivated: ''[[capsicum annuum|annuum]]'', ''[[Capsicum baccatum|baccatum]]'', ''[[Capsicum chinense|chinense]]'', ''[[Capsicum frutescens|frutescens]]'', and ''[[Capsicum pubescens|pubescens]]''.
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== History ==
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=== Origins ===
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''Capsicum'' plants originated in modern-day [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC. They are one of the oldest [[agriculture|cultivated crops]] in the Americas. Chili peppers were cultivated in east-central [[Mexico]] some 6,000 years ago, and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]]. They were among the first [[Self-pollination|self-pollinating]] crops cultivated in those areas.
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[[Peru]] has the highest diversity of cultivated ''Capsicum''; it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. The largest diversity of wild ''Capsicum'' peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ''ulupicas'', species with small round fruits including ''C. eximium'', ''C. cardenasii'', ''C. eshbaughii'', and ''C. caballeroi'' landraces; and ''arivivis'' with small elongated fruits including ''C. baccatum'' var. ''baccatum'' and ''C. chacoense'' varieties.
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[[File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 25, page 019 - 蕃椒 - Capsicum annuum L., 1804 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia ''[[Seikei Zusetsu]]'', 1804]]
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=== Distribution to Europe ===
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{{further|Columbian exchange}}
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When [[Christopher Columbus]] and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter ''Capsicum'' fruits. They called them "peppers" because, like [[black pepper]] (''Piper nigrum''), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods. Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between the New World and the Old World called the [[Columbian exchange]]. Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike ''[[Piper (plant)|Piper]]'' vines, which grow naturally only in the [[tropics]], chilies could be grown in [[temperate climate]]s. By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in the Balkans, where they came to be processed into [[paprika]].
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=== Distribution to the rest of the world ===
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The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely through [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish traders]] in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including [[Goa]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Malacca]]. From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread to [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and other [[Pacific Islands]] via their monopoly of the [[Manila galleons]]. Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in [[Canton, China]], and [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]]. The earliest known mention of the chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s.
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== Producing chili peppers ==
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=== Cultivation ===
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Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly coloured fruits of species of ''Capsicum''. Botanically they are [[Berry (botany)|berries]]. The plants are small, {{convert|20|to|60|cm|in}} depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots, [[greenhouse]]s, or commercially in [[polytunnel]]s. The plants are [[perennial]], provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If the fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest.
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Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, [[loam]]y soil, ideally {{convert|21|to|29|°C|°F}}, that is moist but not waterlogged. The seeds [[germinate]] only when warm, close to {{convert|21|C|F}}. The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to {{convert|12|C|F}}; and are sensitive to cold. The flowers can [[Self-pollination|self-pollinate]]. However, at extremely high temperatures, {{convert|30|to|38|°C|°F}}, pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit. For flowering, ''Capsicum'' is a non-[[photoperiod]]-sensitive crop.
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Chilies are vulnerable to pests including [[aphid]]s, glasshouse [[red spider mite]], and glasshouse [[whitefly]], all of which feed on plant sap. Common diseases include grey mould caused by ''[[Botrytis cinerea]]''; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface.
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<gallery mode=packed caption="Cultivation">
File:Achill.jpg|Young plants
File:Buds and flowers of chili plants.jpg|Buds and flowers
File:Chili pepper.jpg|Immature chilies in the field
File:Shan Hills, Myanmar, Red chili pepper plant.jpg|Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar
File:Capsicum leaf deformated after aphids.jpg|Leaf damaged by [[aphid]]s
File:Chilli paper bd.jpg|Ripe chili pepper with seeds
</gallery>
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=== Preparation ===
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Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make a variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry.
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<gallery mode=packed caption="Drying chilies">
File:Chillies drying in Kathmandu.jpg|Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
File:Andhra Chillies.jpg|[[Guntur chilli]] drying in the sun, [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
File:Red chili peppers Mesilla NM.jpg|[[New Mexico chile]]s dried on the plant in [[Mesilla, New Mexico]]
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File:Sundried chilli.jpg|Sundried chili at [[Imogiri]], Yogyakarta, Indonesia
File:Ristras Drying.jpg|alt=Chili peppers drying in hanging ristras|[[Ristra]]s of chili peppers drying in [[Arizona]]
File:Mujer chiles 3.JPG|Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in [[San Pedro Atocpan]], Mexico
File:Chipotlestipicos.jpg|Smoke-dried chipotle
</gallery>
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Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and [[chili powder]], Fresh or dried chilies are used to make [[hot sauce]], a liquid [[condiment]]—usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes. Dried chilies are used to make [[chili oil]], cooking oil infused with chili.
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<gallery mode=packed heights=160 caption="Products">
File:Inle Lake, Dried red chili (chilli) pepper, Capsicum annuum, Myanmar.jpg|Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar
File:India - Kolkata 2 - 24 - New Market spice shops (3504585620).jpg|Chili powder, India
Hot Sauce Selection At La Whole Food Store (84224397).jpeg|Brands of hot sauce, California
File:Homemade Chili Oil (28909017356).jpg|Chili oil
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=== Annual production ===
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{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:right;"
|+Production of chillies and peppers, green – 2020
|-
! style="background:#ddf; "| Region
! style="background:#ddf; "| <small>(Millions of <br />[[tonne|tons]])</small>
|-
! {{CHN}} 
| 16.7
|-
! {{MEX}} 
| 2.8
|-
! {{IDN}} 
| 2.8
|-
! {{TUR}} 
| 2.6
|-
! {{ESP}} 
| 1.5
|-
! World 
| 36.1
|-
|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]</small>
|}
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In 2020, 36 million [[tonne]]s of green chilies and peppers (counted as any ''Capsicum'' or ''Pimenta'' fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total.
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=== Species and cultivars ===
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{{main list|List of Capsicum cultivars}}
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Species of ''[[Capsicum]]'' that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified [[phylogenetic tree]], with examples of cultivars: The [[World Vegetable Center]] has one of the largest collection of chili peppers in the world. It has researched [[climate change]] resistant cultivars.
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{{clade
|label1='''''[[Capsicum]]'''''
|1={{clade
   |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
            |1={{clade
               |1=''[[Capsicum annuum|C. annuum]]'': [[bell pepper]]s, [[File:Capsicum clip art.png|19px]] [[Banana pepper|wax]], [[cayenne pepper|cayenne]], [[jalapeño]], [[Thai pepper|Thai]], [[chiltepin]], [[New Mexico chile]] [[File:Chilli pepper 4.svg|16px]]
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Capsicum frutescens|C. frutescens]]'': [[tabasco pepper|tabasco]], [[Malagueta pepper|malagueta]], [[labuyo]], [[piri piri]], [[kambuzi]] [[File:Chilli pepper 4.svg|16px]]
                  |2=''[[Capsicum chinense|C. chinense]]'': hottest peppers, e.g. [[naga jolokia|naga]], [[habanero]], [[Datil pepper|datil]], [[Scotch bonnet]] [[File:Chilli pepper 4.svg|16px]][[File:Chilli pepper 4.svg|16px]][[File:Chilli pepper 4.svg|16px]]
                  }}
               }}
            |2=''[[Capsicum baccatum|C. baccatum]]'': [[aji pepper|aji]] [[File:Chilli pepper 4.svg|16px]]
            }} 
         |2=''[[Capsicum pubescens|C. pubescens]]'': [[rocoto]], chile de caballo [[File:Chilli pepper 4.svg|16px]]
         }} 
      |2=''[[Capsicum eximium|C. eximium]]''
      }} 
   |2=''C. lycianthoides''
   }}
}}
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<gallery mode="packed" caption="Cultivars">
File:A Fat Red Cayenne Pepper.jpg|[[Cayenne pepper]]s, a cultivar of ''[[Capsicum annuum]]''
File:Tabasco peppers.JPG|[[Tabasco peppers]], a cultivar of ''[[Capsicum frutescens]]'', fruits pointing upwards
File:Habanero chile - fruits (aka).jpg|[[Habanero peppers]], a cultivar of ''[[Capsicum chinense]]''
File:Cubanelle Peppers.jpg|Cubanelle peppers,<br/>United States
File:HotPeppersinMarket.jpg|Scotch bonnets,<br/>Caribbean
File:Phrik haeng.jpg|[[Bird's eye chili]]es,<br/>Thailand
File:청양고추3.jpg|[[Cheongyang chili pepper|Cheongyang peppers]],<br/>South Korea
</gallery>
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<gallery mode="packed" heights=160>
File:Black pearl cultivar.jpg|Black Pearl cultivar of ''C. annuum''
File:Pimientos choriceros.jpg|[[Choricero peppers|Choricero]],<br/>Spain
File:Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar.jpg|Purple chilies,<br/>Myanmar
</gallery>
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== Intensity ==
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=== Capsaicin ===
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{{main|Capsaicin}}
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{{multiple image
|width     = 200
|direction = vertical
|image1    = Capsaicin.svg
|caption1  = Chemical structure
|image2    = Capsaicin-3D-vdW.png
|caption2  = Space-filling model
|footer    = [[Capsaicin]], the principal molecule that gives chili its heat
}}
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The substances that give chili peppers their [[pungency]] (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are [[capsaicin]] (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called ''capsaicinoids''. Pure capsaicin is a [[hydrophobic]], colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a [[habanero]] plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.
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When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with [[nociceptor|pain receptors]] in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the [[brainstem]] and [[thalamus]] where heat and discomfort are perceived. However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in [[Scoville scale|Scoville heat units]] (SHU), invented by American pharmacist [[Wilbur Scoville]] in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by [[high-performance liquid chromatography]] (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure.
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Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a [[Plant defense against herbivory|defense against mammalian predators]]. A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a [[hemiptera]]n bug, the risk of disease caused by a ''[[Fusarium]]'' fungus carried by the insects is reduced. As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds.
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=== Intensity range of commonly used cultivars ===
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A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:
{|
|-
| [[Bell pepper]] || 0 SHU
|-
| [[Fresno chile|Fresno]], [[jalapeño]] || 3,500–10,000 SHU
|-
| [[Cayenne pepper|Cayenne]] || 30,000–50,000 SHU
|-
| [[Piri piri]], [[Bird's eye chili|bird's eye]] || 50,000–100,000 SHU
|-
| [[Habanero]], [[Scotch bonnet]] || 100,000–350,000 SHU
|-
|}
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=== Hottest by country ===
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{{further|Hottest chili pepper}}
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The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country
! Type
! Heat (SHU)
|-
| United States || [[Pepper X]] || 2.69M
|-
| Wales || [[Dragon's Breath (chili pepper)|Dragon's Breath]] || 2.48M
|-
| United States || [[Carolina Reaper]] || 2.2M
|-
| Trinidad and Tobago || [[Trinidad moruga scorpion]] || 2.0M
|-
| India || [[Ghost pepper]] (Bhut jolokia) || 1.58M
|-
| Trinidad and Tobago || [[Trinidad Scorpion Butch T pepper|Trinidad Scorpion Butch T]] || 1.46M
|-
| England || [[Naga Viper pepper|Naga Viper]] || 1.38M
|-
| England || [[Infinity chili]] || 1.07M
|}
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=== Nutritional value ===
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{{nutritionalvalue | name=Peppers, hot chili, red, raw | source_usda=1| water=88 g | kJ=166 | protein=1.9 g | fat=0.4 g | carbs=8.8 g | fiber=1.5 g | sugars=5.3 g | vitC_mg=144 | vitA_ug=48 | betacarotene_ug=534 | vitB6_mg=0.51 | potassium_mg=322 | magnesium_mg=23 | iron_mg=1|opt1n=[[Capsaicin]]|opt1v=0.01g – 6 g
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170106/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]}}
Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% [[carbohydrate]]s, 2% [[protein (nutrition)|protein]], and 0.4% [[fat]] (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 [[calorie]]s, and are a rich source of [[vitamin C]] and [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]].
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=== Pungency ===
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Due to their unique [[pungency]] (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in [[Sichuanese food]]), Mexican, Thai, Indian, Yoruba, [[New Mexican cuisine]] and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century [[Asian cuisine]], chili peppers are commonly used across many regions. Chili is a key ingredient in many [[curry|curries]], providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether.
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=== Cooking ===
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Chilies with a low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked.
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The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruits. They are cooked as [[Leaf vegetable|greens]] in Filipino cuisine, where they are called ''dahon ng sili'' (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup ''[[tinola]]''. In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in [[kimchi]].
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=== Regional cuisines ===
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Chilies are present in many cuisines. In Peru, ''Papa a la huancaina'' is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and [[aji amarillo]] chilies. In Thailand, ''kaeng tai pla'' fish curry is flavoured with a ''tai pla'' sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies. In Jamaica, [[jerk chicken]] is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and [[allspice]]. Goan vindaloo curry uses the extremely hot [[ghost pepper]] or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish". In [[Bhutan]], ''[[ema datshi]]'', entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese, is the national dish. Many [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican dishes]] use chilies of different types, including the [[jalapeño]], [[poblano]], [[habanero]], [[Serrano pepper|serrano]], [[chipotle]], [[ancho]], [[pasilla]], [[Guajillo chili|guajillo]], [[Chile de árbol|de árbol]], [[Cascabel chili|cascabel]] and [[Mulato pepper|mulato]]. These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy ''[[Mole (sauce)|mole]]'' sauce and Mexican [[Salsa (food)|salsa]] sauces. and [[Obe ata]].
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<gallery mode=packed caption="Dishes">
File:Lamb Chops With Guajillo Chili Sauce and Charro Beans (cropped).jpg|Mexican lamb chops with [[guajillo]] chili sauce and charro beans
File:Taj Mahal - Lamb Curry Madras.jpg|Lamb [[Madras curry]]
File:Chilli pickle in a plate 2.jpg|Pickled chili in India
File:Chili pepper dip Amman.JPG|Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
File:Tinolang Manok.jpg|[[Filipino cuisine|Filipino]] ''[[tinola]]'' chicken soup with ''[[labuyo]]'' chili leaves
</gallery>
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== Other uses ==
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=== Ornamental plants ===
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[[File:Black Pearl - Ornamental Pepper.JPG|thumb|alt=Black Pearl Pepper.|Black pearl pepper, an ornamental variety]]
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The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant. 
* [[Black pearl pepper]]: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves
* Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits
* [[Bishop's crown|Bishop's crown pepper]], Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell
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=== Constrained risk-taking ===
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Psychologist [[Paul Rozin]] suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a [[roller coaster]], in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.
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=== Topical use and health research ===
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[[Capsaicin]], the [[pungency|pungent]] chemical in chili peppers, is used as an [[analgesic]] in [[topical medication|topical ointments]], [[nasal spray]]s, and [[dermal patch]]es to relieve pain. A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from [[cardiovascular disease]]s and [[cancer]].
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=== Chemical irritants ===
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{{further|Pepper spray|Chili grenade}}
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Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in [[pepper spray]]s and some [[tear gas]] formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as [[less-lethal weapon]]s for control of unruly individuals or crowds. Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.
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[[Human–wildlife conflict|Conflicts]] between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa|African]] and [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia|Asian]] countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin due to their large and sensitive [[Olfaction|olfactory]] and nasal system. The smell of chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.
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Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific [[Nociceptors|pain receptor]]. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources.
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== Etymology and spelling ==
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The English word is {{etymology|nci|{{wikt-lang|nci|chīlli}}|}} with the same meaning. The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country [[Chile]]. While ''pepper'' originally meant the genus ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]]'', not ''Capsicum'', the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' and  [[Merriam-Webster]] record both usages.
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The three primary spellings are ''chili'', ''chile'' and ''chilli'', all recognized by dictionaries.
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* ''Chili'' is widely used in English of the United States
* ''Chile'' is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries, and some parts of the United States. 
* ''Chilli'' was the original [[Romanization]] of the [[Nahuatl|Náhuatl language]] word for the fruit (chīlli), and is the preferred British spelling according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''. ''Chilli'' (and its plural ''chillies'') is the most common spelling in former British colonies such as India and Sri Lanka.
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== Safety ==
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The [[volatile oil]] in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts. Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, [[hyperventilation]], [[sweat]]ing, [[vomit]]ing, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.
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Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including [[Auramine O]], [[Chrysoidine]], [[Sudan stain|Sudan stains I to IV]], [[Para red]], and [[Rhodamine B]] to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by [[liquid chromatography]] used together with [[mass spectrometry]].
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== In popular culture ==
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[[File:Capsicum -Chili - Peperoncino - Il Viagra Calabrese - Calabria - Italy - July 17th 2013 - 02.jpg|thumb|[[Peperoncino]] chilies in Italy, advertised as an [[aphrodisiac]] ]]
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The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist [[José de Acosta]] noted the supposed [[aphrodisiac]] power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's [[spiritual health]]. In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle."
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* [[Food and drink prohibitions]] – which in some cultures includes chili peppers
* [[Hatch, New Mexico]] – known as the "Chile Capital of the World"
* [[History of chocolate]] – which the [[Maya peoples|Maya]] drank with ground chili peppers
* [[International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile]] – organization for the promotion of chili peppers
* [[Peppersoup]]
* [[Salsa (sauce)]]
* [[Sweet chili sauce]] – a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food
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== External links ==
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{{Wiktionary|chili}}
{{Cookbook|Chilli Pepper}}
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050220140720/http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161120165150/http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/ The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121114184110/http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/cns/no69/CNS06908.pdf Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo] (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)
*[http://www.pepperscale.com/hot-pepper-list/ The Hot Pepper List] List of chili pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)
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{{Chili peppers}}
{{Capsicum cultivars}}
{{Herbs & spices}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Chili Pepper}}
[[Category:Agriculture in Mesoamerica]]
[[Category:Chili peppers| ]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Central America]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of South America]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Ecuador]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Mexico]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Peru]]
[[Category:Symbols of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:New Mexican cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southwestern United States]]
[[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan spices]]
[[Category:Mesoamerican cuisine]]
[[Category:Mexican cuisine]]
[[Category:Fruits originating in North America]]
{{二次利用|date=30 May 2025, at 20:50}}
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