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{{Short description|Ground fruit of the family Piperaceae}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Piper_nigrum_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-107.jpg
| image_caption = Pepper plant with immature peppercorns
| genus = Piper
| species = nigrum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
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'''Black pepper''' ('''''Piper nigrum''''') is a [[flowering plant|flowering]] [[vine]] in the family [[Piperaceae]], cultivated for its [[fruit]] (the '''peppercorn'''), which is usually dried and used as a [[spice]] and [[seasoning]]. The fruit is a [[drupe]] (stonefruit) which is about {{convert|5|mm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} in diameter (fresh and fully mature), dark red, and contains a [[Pyrena|stone]] which encloses a single pepper [[seed]]. Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as ''pepper'', or more precisely as ''black pepper'' (cooked and dried unripe fruit), ''green pepper'' (dried unripe fruit), or ''white pepper'' (ripe fruit seeds).
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Black pepper is native to the [[Malabar Coast]] of [[India]], and the [[Malabar pepper]] is extensively cultivated there and in other [[tropical]] regions. Ground, dried, and cooked peppercorns have been used since antiquity, both for flavour and as a [[traditional medicine]]. Black pepper is the world's most traded [[spice]], and is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. Its spiciness is due to the chemical compound [[piperine]], which is a different kind of spiciness from that of [[capsaicin]] characteristic of [[chili pepper]]s. It is ubiquitous in the Western world as a [[seasoning]], and is often paired with [[salt]] and available on dining tables in [[salt and pepper shakers|shakers]] or [[burr mill|mills]].
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==Etymology==
The word ''pepper'' derives from [[Old English]] ''pipor'', [[Latin]] ''piper'', and {{langx|el|πέπερι}}. The Greek likely derives from [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] ''pippali'', meaning "long pepper". [[Sanskrit]] ''pippali'' shares the same meaning.
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In the 16th century, people began using ''pepper'' to also mean the [[New World]] [[chili pepper]] (genus ''[[Capsicum]]''), which is not closely related.
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==Varieties==
[[File:4 color mix of peppercorns.jpg|thumb|Black, green, white, and pink (''[[Schinus terebinthifolia]]'') peppercorns]]
Processed peppercorns come in a variety of colours, any one of which may be used in food preparation, especially common [[peppercorn sauce]].
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===Black pepper===
Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe [[drupe]] of the pepper plant. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures [[cell wall]]s in the pepper, accelerating [[enzymes]] that cause [[browning (chemical process)|browning]] during drying.
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The pepper drupes can also be dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper skin around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer containing [[melanoidin]]. Once dry, the spice is called black peppercorn. After the peppercorns are dried, pepper powder for culinary uses is obtained by crushing the berries, which may also yield an [[essential oil]] by [[extract|extraction]].
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===White pepper===
White pepper consists solely of the seed of the ripe fruit of the pepper plant, with the thin darker-coloured skin (flesh) of the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by a process known as [[retting]], where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week so the flesh of the peppercorn softens and [[decomposition|decomposes]]; rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Sometimes the outer layer is removed from the seed through other mechanical, chemical, or biological methods.
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Ground white pepper is commonly used in [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], and [[Portuguese cuisine]]s. It finds occasional use in other cuisines in salads, [[Béchamel|light-coloured]] sauces, and [[mashed potatoes]] as a substitute for black pepper, because black pepper would visibly stand out. However, white pepper lacks certain compounds present in the outer layer of the drupe, resulting in a different overall flavour.
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===Green pepper===
Green pepper, like black pepper, is made from unripe drupes. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a way that retains the green colour, such as with [[sulfur dioxide]], [[canning]], or [[freeze-drying]]. [[Pickled]] peppercorns, also green, are unripe drupes preserved in [[brine]] or [[vinegar]].
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Fresh, unpreserved green pepper drupes are used in some cuisines like [[Thai cuisine]] and [[Tamil cuisine]]. Their flavour has been described as "spicy and fresh", with a "bright aroma." They decay quickly if not dried or preserved, making them unsuitable for international shipping.
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===Red peppercorns===
Red peppercorns usually consist of ripe peppercorn drupes preserved in brine and vinegar. Ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper.
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===Pink pepper and other plants===
[[Pink peppercorn]]s are the fruits of the [[Peruvian pepper|Peruvian pepper tree]], ''Schinus molle'', or its relative, the [[Brazilian pepper|Brazilian pepper tree]], ''Schinus terebinthifolius'', plants from a different family ([[Anacardiaceae]]). As they are members of the [[cashew]] family, they may cause [[allergic reactions]], including [[anaphylaxis]], for persons with a [[tree nut allergy]].
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The bark of ''[[Drimys winteri]]'' ("canelo" or "winter's bark") is used as a substitute for pepper in cold and temperate regions of [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]], where it is easily found and readily available. In [[New Zealand]], the seeds of [[Kawakawa (tree)|kawakawa]] (''Piper excelsum''), a [[Piperaceae|relative of black pepper]], are sometimes used as pepper; the leaves of ''[[Pseudowintera colorata]]'' ("mountain horopito") are another replacement for pepper. Several plants in the United States are also used as pepper substitutes, such as [[Lepidium campestre|field pepperwort]], [[Lepidium virginicum|least pepperwort]], [[shepherd's purse]], [[horseradish]], and [[field pennycress]].
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<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
Variants of Pepper.jpg|Six variants of peppercorns (two types of white and two types of black, based on region)
Dried Peppercorns.jpg|alt=Black peppercorns and white peppercorns|Black and white peppercorns
Dried red Kampot peppercorns.jpg|Dried red [[Kampot peppercorns]]
Pimienta negra (Piper nigrum), 2020-06-12, DD 20-40 FS.jpg|Close-up of a peppercorn
</gallery>
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==Plants==
[[File:Black Pepper on Jackfruit Tree - Kerala - IMG 3623.jpg|thumb|150px|Black pepper vine climbing on Jackfruit tree (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'')]]
The pepper plant is a [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[woody plant|woody]] [[vine]] growing up to {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, {{convert|5|to|10|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|3|to|6|cm|abbr=on}} across. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes {{convert|4|to|8|cm|abbr=on}} long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening up to {{convert|7|to|15|cm|abbr=on}} as the fruit matures.
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Pepper can be grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to flooding, moist, well-drained, and rich in organic matter. The vines do not do well over an altitude of {{convert|900|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} above sea level. The plants are propagated by cuttings about {{convert|40|to|50|cm|abbr=on}} long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf [[mulch]] and [[manure]], and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils, the young plants require watering every other day during the [[dry season]] for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and then typically for seven years. The cuttings are usually [[cultivar]]s, selected both for yield and quality of fruit.
[[File:Black Pepper Flower - Kerala - IMG 3622.jpg|thumb|150px|Single stem with flowers.]]
A single stem bears 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two fruits at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is fully mature, and still hard; if allowed to ripen completely, the fruits lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes.
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Black pepper is native either to [[Southeast Asia]] or [[South Asia]]. Within the genus ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]]'', it is most closely related to other Asian species such as ''P. caninum''.
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Wild pepper grows in the [[Western Ghats]] region of [[India]]. Into the 19th century, the forests contained expansive wild pepper vines, as recorded by the Scottish physician [[Francis Buchanan]] (also a botanist and geographer) in his book ''A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar'' (Volume III). However, [[deforestation]] resulted in wild pepper growing in more limited forest patches from [[Goa]] to [[Kerala]], with the wild source gradually decreasing as the quality and yield of the cultivated variety improved. No successful grafting of commercial pepper on wild pepper has been achieved to date.
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==Production and trade==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Black pepper production <br>{{small|2023, tonnes}}
|-
|-
| {{VNM}} ||257,427
|-
| {{BRA}} ||126,548
|-
| {{INA}} ||70,169
|-
| {{IND}} ||65,740
|-
| {{MYS}} ||40,675
|-
| {{CHN}} ||33,908
|-
| '''World'''  ||'''855,105'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]}}
|}
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In 2023, world production of black peppercorns was 855,105 [[tonne]]s, led by [[Vietnam]] with 30% of the total, and Brazil, Indonesia, and India as secondary producers (table). Peppercorns are among the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20% of all spice imports.
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==History==
Black pepper is native to [[South Asia]] and Southeast Asia, and has been known to [[Indian cuisine|Indian cooking]] since at least 2000 BCE. J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern [[Thailand]] and in [[Malaysia]], its most important source was India, particularly the [[Malabar Coast]], in what is now the state of [[Kerala]]. The lost ancient port city of [[Muziris]] of the [[Chera Dynasty]], famous for exporting black pepper and various other spices, is mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade with the [[Roman Empire]], [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Levant]], and [[Yemen]]. Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of [[commodity money]]. The legacy of this trade remains in some Western legal systems that recognize the term "[[peppercorn rent]]" as a token payment for something that is, essentially, a gift.
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The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of [[long pepper]], the dried fruit of closely related ''[[Piper longum]]''. The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just ''piper''. In fact, the popularity of long pepper did not entirely decline until the discovery of the New World and of [[chili pepper]]s. Chili peppers—some of which, when dried, are similar in shape and taste to long pepper—were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe. Before the 16th century, pepper was being grown in [[Java]], [[Sunda Islands|Sunda]], [[Sumatra]], [[Madagascar]], Malaysia, and everywhere in Southeast Asia. These areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally. Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean. The Maluku Islands, historically known as the "Spice Islands," are a region in Indonesia known for producing nutmeg, mace, cloves, and pepper, and were a major source of these spices in the world. The presence of these spices in the Maluku Islands sparked European interest to buy them directly in the 16th century.
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===Ancient times===
Black peppercorns were found stuffed in the nostrils of [[Ramesses II]], placed there as part of the [[mummy|mummification]] rituals shortly after his death in 1213 BCE. Little else is known about the use of pepper in [[ancient Egypt]] and how it reached the [[Nile]] from the [[Malabar Coast]] of India.
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Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the fourth century BCE, though it was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford.
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[[File:Italy to India Route.svg|thumb|A Roman-era trade route from India to Italy]]
By the time of the early [[Roman Empire]], especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea direct to Chera dynasty [[southern India]]'s Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. According to the Greek geographer [[Strabo]], the early empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual trip to India and back. The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictable [[monsoon]] winds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up the [[Red Sea]], from where the cargo was carried overland or via the [[Canal of the Pharaohs|Nile-Red Sea canal]] to the Nile River, barged to [[Alexandria]], and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate the pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come.
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With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, [[Malabar pepper|Malabar black pepper]] was now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' tells us the prices in Rome around 77 CE: "Long pepper ... is 15 [[denarius|denarii]] per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains, "There is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of 50 million [[sestertius|sesterces]]", and further moralizes on pepper:
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{{Blockquote|It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite?|Pliny, ''Natural History'' 12.14}}
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He does not state whether the 50 million was the actual amount of money which found its way to India or the total retail cost of the items in Rome, and, elsewhere, he cites a figure of 100 million sesterces.
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Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the Roman Empire. [[Apicius]]' ''[[De re coquinaria]]'', a third-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the first century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. [[Edward Gibbon]] wrote, in ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', that pepper was "a favorite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery".
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===Postclassical Europe===
Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as [[collateral (finance)|collateral]] or even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall. [[Alaric I|Alaric]], king of the [[Visigoths]], included 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom he demanded from Rome when he besieged the city in the fifth century. After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the [[spice trade]], first the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] and then the [[Arab]]s; Innes Miller cites the account of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], who travelled east to India, as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century". By the end of the [[Early Middle Ages]], the central portions of the spice trade were firmly under [[Islamic]] control. Once into the Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolized by Italian powers, especially [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]]. The rise of these [[city-state]]s was funded in large part by the spice trade.
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A [[riddle]] authored by [[Saint Aldhelm]], a seventh-century [[Bishop of Sherborne (historic)|Bishop of Sherborne]], sheds some light on black pepper's role in England at that time:
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{{Poem quote|I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover,
Yet within I bear a burning marrow.
I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table,
Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen.
But you will find in me no quality of any worth,
Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.}}
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It is commonly believed that during the [[Middle Ages]], pepper was often used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. No evidence supports this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely; in the Middle Ages, pepper was a [[luxury good|luxury item]], affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available, as well. In addition, people of the time certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable; it is true that [[piperine]], the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small. Salt is a much more effective preservative, and [[salt-cured meat]]s were common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices played a role in improving the taste of long-preserved meats.
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Archaeological evidence of pepper consumption in late medieval Northern Europe comes from excavations on the Danish-Norwegian flagship, [[Gribshunden]], which sank in the summer of 1495. In 2021, archaeologists recovered more than 2000 peppercorns from the wreck, along with a variety of other spices and exotic foodstuffs including clove, ginger, saffron, and almond. The ship was carrying King Hans to a political summit at the time of its loss. The spices were likely intended for feasts at the summit, which would have included the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Councils of State.
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[[File:Calicut 1572.jpg|thumb|300px|A depiction of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], Kerala, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade]]
Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages – and the monopoly on the trade held by [[Republic_of_Venice|Venice]] – was one of the inducements that led the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] to seek a sea route to India. In 1498, [[Vasco da Gama]] became the first person to reach India by sailing around Africa (see [[Age of Discovery]]); asked by Arabs in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seek [[Christians]] and spices". Though this first trip to India by way of the southern tip of Africa was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and eventually gained much greater control of trade on the Arabian Sea. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas|1494 Treaty of Tordesillas]] granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated.
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However, the Portuguese monopolized the spice trade for 150 years. Portuguese even became the lingua franca of the then known world. The spice trade made Portugal rich. However, in the 17th century, the Portuguese lost most of their valuable Indian Ocean trade to the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and the [[England|English]], who, taking advantage of the Spanish rule over Portugal during the [[Iberian Union]] (1580–1640), occupied by force almost all Portuguese interests in the area. The pepper ports of Malabar began to trade increasingly with the Dutch in the period 1661–1663.7
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[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|Pepper harvested for the European trade, from a manuscript ''Livre des merveilles de [[Marco Polo]]'' (The book of the marvels of Marco Polo)]]
As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade.
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===China===
It is possible that black pepper was known in [[China]] in the second century BCE, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by [[Emperor Wu of Han China|Emperor Wu]] to what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something called ''jujiang'' or "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of [[Shu (state)|Shu]], an area in what is now the [[Sichuan]] province. The traditional view among historians is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made from [[betel]] leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black.
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In the third century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as ''hujiao'' or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a fourth-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper. By the 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's native [[Sichuan pepper]] (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant).
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[[Marco Polo]] testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China, when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay ([[Hangzhou]]): "...&nbsp;Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43&nbsp;loads, each load being equal to 223&nbsp;lbs."
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During the course of the [[Ming treasure voyages]] in the early 15th century, Admiral [[Zheng He]] and his expeditionary fleets returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity.
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==Traditional medicine, phytochemicals, and research==
[[File:Alice par John Tenniel 21.png|right|thumb|"There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!". Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing&nbsp;— ''[[Alice in Wonderland]]'' (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill.]]
Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a [[traditional medicine]]. Pepper appears in the Buddhist [[Samaññaphala Sutta]], chapter five, as one of the few medicines a monk is allowed to carry. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used. Black pepper (or perhaps long pepper) was believed to cure several illnesses, such as [[constipation]], [[insomnia]], oral [[abscess]]es, [[sunburn]], and [[toothache]]s, among others.
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Pepper contains [[phytochemical]]s, including [[amide]]s, [[piperidine]]s, and [[pyrrolidine]]s.
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Pepper is known to cause [[sneeze|sneezing]]. Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing. Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question.
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===Nutrition===
One [[tablespoon]] (6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts of [[vitamin K]] (13% of the [[daily value]] or DV), [[iron]] (10% DV), and [[manganese]] (18% DV), with trace amounts of other [[essential nutrients]], [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and [[dietary fibre]].
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==Flavour==
[[File:Pfeffermuehlen S7301812.jpg|thumb|Handheld pepper mills with black (left) and mixed (right) peppercorns]]
Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from [[piperine]] derived from both the outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6 and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the [[capsaicin]] found in [[chili pepper]]s. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains [[aroma]]-contributing [[terpene]]s, including [[germacrene]] (11%), [[limonene]] (10%), [[pinene]] (10%), [[alpha-phellandrene]] (9%), and [[beta-caryophyllene]] (7%), which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, as the fermentation and other processing removes the fruit layer (which also contains some of the spicy piperine). Other flavours also commonly develop in this process, some of which are described as off-flavours when in excess: Primarily [[3-methylindole]] (pig manure-like), [[4-methylphenol]] (horse manure), [[3-methylphenol]] (phenolic), and [[butyric acid]] (cheese). The aroma of pepper is attributed to [[rotundone]] (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl)[[azulene]]-1(2H)-one), a [[sesquiterpene]] originally discovered in the tubers of ''[[Cyperus rotundus]]'', which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/l in water and in wine: rotundone is also present in marjoram, oregano, rosemary, basil, thyme, and geranium, as well as in some [[Shiraz wine]]s.
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Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve its spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavour when exposed to light, which can [[Isomerisation|transform]] piperine into nearly tasteless [[chavicine|isochavicine]]. Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheld [[pepper mill]]s or grinders, which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this as an alternative to pepper shakers that dispense ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as the 14th century, but the [[mortar and pestle]] used earlier for crushing pepper have remained a popular method for centuries, as well.
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Enhancing the flavour profile of peppercorns (including piperine and essential oils), prior to processing, has been attempted through the postharvest application of ultraviolet-C light (UV-C).
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==See also==
* [[False black pepper]] – ''Embelia ribes'' is a species in the family Primulaceae (the ''primrose family'')
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== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Piper nigrum|''Piper nigrum''}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Piper nigrum|''Piper nigrum''}}
* {{Cookbook-inline|Pepper}}
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{{Culinary herbs and spices}}
{{Transient receptor potential channel modulators}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Pepper, Black}}
[[Category:Crops originating from India]]
[[Category:Essential oils]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors]]
[[Category:Non-timber forest products]]
[[Category:Pepper trade]]
[[Category:Piper (plant)]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
{{二次利用|date=2 June 2025, at 01:59}}
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