Spice/ja: Difference between revisions

Line 24:

==Etymology==

The word ''spice'' originated in [[Middle English]] which came from the [[Old French]] words {{Lang|fro|espece}}'', {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}},'' and {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}}. According to the ''[[Middle English Dictionary]]'', the Old French words came from [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-French]] ''spece''; according to [[Merriam-Webster|Merriam Webster]], the Old-French words came from Anglo-French ''espece,'' and ''espis''. Both publications agree that the Anglo-French words derived from [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|species}}. [[Middle English]] {{Lang|enm|spice}} had its first known use as a noun in the 13th century.

The word ''spice'' originated in [[Wikipedia:Middle English|Middle English]] which came from the [[Wikipedia:Old French|Old French]] words {{Lang|fro|espece}}'', {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}},'' and {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}}. According to the ''[[Wikipedia:Middle English Dictionary|Middle English Dictionary]]'', the Old French words came from [[:en:Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-French]] ''spece''; according to [[:en:Merriam-Webster|Merriam Webster]], the Old-French words came from Anglo-French ''espece,'' and ''espis''. Both publications agree that the Anglo-French words derived from [[Wikipedia:Latin|Latin]] {{Lang|la|species}}. [[Wikipedia:Middle English|Middle English]] {{Lang|enm|spice}} had its first known use as a noun in the 13th century.

</div>

Line 34:

===Early history===

The spice trade developed throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.

The spice trade developed throughout the [[Wikipedia:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[Wikipedia:East Asia|East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[:en:Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[Wikipedia:China|China]], [[Wikipedia:Korea|Korea]], and [[Wikipedia:India|India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.

</div>

[[Clove]]s were used in [[Mesopotamia]] by 1700 BCE. The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Banda Islands]] in [[Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.

[[Clove]]s were used in [[Wikipedia:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] by 1700 BCE. The ancient Indian [[Wikipedia:Indian epic poetry|epic|Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Wikipedia:Ramayana|Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[:en:Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Wikipedia:Pliny the Elder|Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Wikipedia:Ebers Papyrus|Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Wikipedia:Banda Islands|Banda Islands]] in [[Wikipedia:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.

</div>

Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[port city]] of [[Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.

Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Wikipedia:Arab|Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[Wikipedia:port city|port city]] of [[Wikipedia:Alexandria|Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[Wikipedia:monsoon|monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.

</div>

Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Old Testament]]. In [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.

Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Wikipedia:Old Testament|Old Testament]]. In [[:en:Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[:en:Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[:en:Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Wikipedia:manna|manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Wikipedia:Song of Solomon|Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.

</div>

===Middle Ages===

[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]

[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[Wikipedia:The Travels of Marco Polo|The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]

Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]],~~<sup>[[Spice#cite note-5|[5]]]</sup>~~ the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food,~~<sup>[[Spice#cite note-6|[6]]]</sup>~~ a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[wine]], and was not alone among [[European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.

Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Wikipedia:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[Wikipedia:humorism|humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food, a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[Wikipedia:pandemic|pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[Wikipedia:King of Aragon|King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[Wikipedia:wine|wine]], and was not alone among [[:en:European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.

</div>

Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].

Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Wikipedia:Republic of Venice|Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[Wikipedia:maritime republics|maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Wikipedia:Late Middle Ages|Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[:en:Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].

</div>

===Early modern period===

[[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[New World]]. He described to [[investor]]s new spices available there.

[[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] and [[Wikipedia:Portugal|Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[:en:Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Wikipedia:Vasco da Gama|Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[Wikipedia:India|India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Wikipedia:Venice|Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Wikipedia:Christopher Columbus|Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[Wikipedia:New World|New World]]. He described to [[Wikipedia:investor|investor]]s new spices available there.

</div>

Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Ormuz]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[viceroy]] of the [[Indies]], he took [[Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Malacca]] on the [[Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[Thailand|Siam]], [[China]], and the [[Maluku Islands]].

Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[:en:Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Wikipedia:Dubrovnik|Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Wikipedia:Afonso de Albuquerque|Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Wikipedia:Socotra|Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Wikipedia:Red Sea|Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Wikipedia:Ormuz|Ormuz]] in the [[Wikipedia:Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[Wikipedia:viceroy|viceroy]] of the [[Wikipedia:Indies|Indies]], he took [[Wikipedia:Goa|Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Wikipedia:Malacca|Malacca]] on the [[Wikipedia:Malay peninsula|Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[:en:Thailand|Siam]], [[Wikipedia:China|China]], and the [[Wikipedia:Maluku Islands|Maluku Islands]].

</div>

Line 75:

==Function==

[[File:Common Indian spices.jpg|thumb|Turmeric powder, mustard seeds, chili powder, cumin seeds|alt=Chili powder, mustard seeds, turmeric powder, cumin seeds]]

Spices are primarily used as food [[flavoring]] or to create variety. They are also used to perfume [[cosmetics]] and [[incense]]. At various periods, many spices have been believed to have medicinal value. Finally, since they are expensive, rare, and exotic commodities, their [[conspicuous consumption]] has often been a symbol of wealth and social class.

Spices are primarily used as food [[flavoring]] or to create variety. They are also used to perfume [[Wikipedia:cosmetics|cosmetics]] and [[Wikipedia:incense|incense]]. At various periods, many spices have been believed to have medicinal value. Finally, since they are expensive, rare, and exotic commodities, their [[Wikipedia:conspicuous consumption|conspicuous consumption]] has often been a symbol of wealth and social class.

</div>

Line 81:

===Preservative claim===

{{quote box|align=right|width=35%|The most popular explanation for the love of spices in the Middle Ages is that they were used to preserve meat from spoiling, or to cover up the taste of meat that had already gone off. This compelling but false idea constitutes something of an urban legend, a story so instinctively attractive that mere fact seems unable to wipe it out... Anyone who could afford spices could easily find meat fresher than what city dwellers today buy in their local supermarket.}}

It is often claimed that spices were used either as [[food preservation|food preservatives]] or to mask the taste of [[Meat spoilage|spoiled meat]], especially in the European [[Middle Ages]]. This is false. In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to [[salting (food)|salting]], [[smoking (cooking)|smoking]], [[pickling]], or [[food drying|drying]], and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat. Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper. There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever." Indeed, [[Cristoforo di Messisbugo]] suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage.

It is often claimed that spices were used either as [[:en:food preservation|food preservatives]] or to mask the taste of [[:en:Meat spoilage|spoiled meat]], especially in the European [[Wikipedia:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]]. This is false. In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to [[:en:salting (food)|salting]], [[:en:smoking (cooking)|smoking]], [[:en:pickling|pickling]], or [[:en:food drying|drying]], and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat. Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper. There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever." Indeed, [[Wikipedia:Cristoforo di Messisbugo|Cristoforo di Messisbugo]] suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage.

</div>

Line 117:

* [[Advieh]] ([[Iran]])

* [[Advieh]] ([[Wikipedia:Iran|Iran]])

* [[Baharat]] ([[Arab world]], and the [[Middle East]] in general)

* [[Baharat]] ([[Wikipedia:Arab world|Arab world]], and the [[Wikipedia:Middle East|Middle East]] in general)

* [[Berbere]] ([[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]] and [[Somalia]])

* [[Berbere]] ([[Wikipedia:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[Wikipedia:Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Wikipedia:Somalia|Somalia]])

* [[Bumbu (seasoning)|Bumbu]] ([[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesia]])

* [[Cajun cuisine#Blended|Cajun]] ([[United States]])

* [[Cajun cuisine#Blended|Cajun]] ([[Wikipedia:United States|United States]])

* [[Chaat masala]] ([[Indian subcontinent]])

* [[Chaat masala]] ([[Wikipedia:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]])

* [[Curry powder]]

* [[Five-spice powder]] ([[China]])

* [[Five-spice powder]] ([[Wikipedia:China|China]])

* [[Garam masala]] (Indian subcontinent)

* [[Harissa]] ([[North Africa]])

* [[Harissa]] ([[Wikipedia:North Africa|North Africa]])

* [[Hawaij]] ([[Yemen]])

* [[Hawaij]] ([[Wikipedia:Yemen|Yemen]])

* [[Jamaican jerk spice|Jerk spice]] ([[Jamaica]])

* [[Jamaican jerk spice|Jerk spice]] ([[Wikipedia:Jamaica|Jamaica]])

* [[Khmeli suneli]] (Georgia, former U.S.S.R.)

* [[Masala (spice)|Masala]] (a generic name for any mix used in the Indian subcontinent)

* [[Mixed spice]] ([[United Kingdom]])

* [[Mixed spice]] ([[Wikipedia:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]])

* [[Panch phoron]] (Indian subcontinent)

* [[Pumpkin pie spice]] ([[United States]])

* [[Pumpkin pie spice]] ([[Wikipedia:United States|United States]])

* [[Quatre épices]] ([[France]])

* [[Quatre épices]] ([[Wikipedia:France|France]])

* [[Ras el hanout]] ([[North Africa]])

* [[Ras el hanout]] ([[Wikipedia:North Africa|North Africa]])

* [[Sharena sol]] (literally "colorful salt", [[Bulgaria]])

* [[Sharena sol]] (literally "colorful salt", [[Wikipedia:Bulgaria|Bulgaria]])

* [[Shichimi|Shichimi tōgarashi]] ([[Japan]])

* [[Shichimi|Shichimi tōgarashi]] ([[Wikipedia:Japan|Japan]])

* [[Speculaas]] ([[Belgium]] and [[Netherlands]])

* [[Speculaas]] ([[Wikipedia:Belgium|Belgium]] and [[Wikipedia:Netherlands|Netherlands]])

* Thuna Paha ([[Sri Lanka]])

* Thuna Paha ([[Wikipedia:Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]])

* [[Podravka#Consumer brands|Vegeta]] ([[Croatia]])

* [[Podravka#Consumer brands|Vegeta]] ([[Wikipedia:Croatia|Croatia]])

* [[Za'atar]] (Middle East)

Line 157:

[[File:Peugeot pepper mill.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.50|Pepper mill]]

For ground spices, to grind a whole spice, the classic tool is [[mortar and pestle]]. Less labor-intensive tools are more common now: a [[microplane]] or fine [[grater]] can be used to grind small amounts; a [[blade grinder|coffee grinder]] is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or [[Burr mill#Manual burr grinders|mill]].

For ground spices, to grind a whole spice, the classic tool is [[Wikipedia:mortar and pestle|mortar and pestle]]. Less labor-intensive tools are more common now: a [[Wikipedia:microplane|microplane]] or fine [[Wikipedia:grater|grater]] can be used to grind small amounts; a [[:en:blade grinder|coffee grinder]] is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or [[:en:Burr mill#Manual burr grinders|mill]].

</div>

Line 171:

===Salmonella contamination===

A study by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by ''[[Salmonella]]'' bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. [[Food irradiation]] is said to minimise this risk.

A study by the [[Wikipedia:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]] of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by ''[[Salmonella]]'' bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. [[Wikipedia:Food irradiation|Food irradiation]] is said to minimise this risk.

</div>

==Health research==

Spices have been claimed to have health effects during both ancient and current times; for example, in 2017, the [[The Washington Post|''Washington Post'']] said spices put "a natural pharmacy in your kitchen". The supposed health benefits include antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and benefits towards certain diseases. A 2019 systematic review looked at studies of 25 spices and concluded that there is not enough evidence yet to support these supposed benefits, and that "further work is needed". The review noted that many studies were conducted by administering capsule or "artificial" forms of the spices, but spices are not normally consumed in this manner, and are normally consumed along other foods. Spices may reduce the need for salt as a flavoring agent in dishes, which has cardiovascular benefits.

Spices have been claimed to have health effects during both ancient and current times; for example, in 2017, the [[:en:The Washington Post|''Washington Post'']] said spices put "a natural pharmacy in your kitchen". The supposed health benefits include antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and benefits towards certain diseases. A 2019 systematic review looked at studies of 25 spices and concluded that there is not enough evidence yet to support these supposed benefits, and that "further work is needed". The review noted that many studies were conducted by administering capsule or "artificial" forms of the spices, but spices are not normally consumed in this manner, and are normally consumed along other foods. Spices may reduce the need for salt as a flavoring agent in dishes, which has cardiovascular benefits.

</div>

==Production==

[[File:Spices in an Indian market.jpg|thumb|right|Spices and herbs at a shop in [[Goa]], India]]

[[File:Spices in an Indian market.jpg|thumb|right|Spices and herbs at a shop in [[Wikipedia:Goa|Goa]], India]]

{| class="sortable wikitable" style="float:left;

|+ Top Spice Producing Countries <br />(in metric tonnes)

Line 209:

| 10 || Sri Lanka || 8,293 || 8,438

|- bgcolor="#cccccc"

| — || ''[[World]]'' || 1,995,523 || 2,063,472

| — || ''[[Wikipedia:World|World]]'' || 1,995,523 || 2,063,472

|-

|colspan=4 | ''Source: [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]''

|}

Line 218:

==Standardization==

The [[International Organization for Standardization]] addresses spices and [[condiment]]s, along with related food additives, as part of the [[International Classification for Standards]] 67.220 series.

The [[Wikipedia:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]] addresses spices and [[Wikipedia:condiment|condiment]]s, along with related food additives, as part of the [[Wikipedia:International Classification for Standards|International Classification for Standards]] 67.220 series.

</div>

==Research==

The [[Indian Institute of Spices Research]] in [[Kozhikode]], Kerala, is devoted exclusively to conducting research for ten spice crops: black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, clove, [[garcinia]], ginger, nutmeg, paprika, turmeric, and vanilla.

The [[Indian Institute of Spices Research]] in [[Wikipedia:Kozhikode|Kozhikode]], Kerala, is devoted exclusively to conducting research for ten spice crops: black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, clove, [[garcinia]], ginger, nutmeg, paprika, turmeric, and vanilla.

</div>

Line 229:

==Gallery==

File:Gato negro.jpg|The ''Gato Negro'' café and spice shop ([[Buenos Aires]], Argentina)

File:Gato negro.jpg|The ''Gato Negro'' café and spice shop ([[Wikipedia:Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires]], Argentina)

File:Spice shop, Mashad, Iran.jpg|A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran

File:Night Spice market in Casablanca.JPG|Night spice shop in Casablanca, Morocco

File:Taliparamba Market.jpg|A spice shop in [[Taliparamba]], India

File:Taliparamba Market.jpg|A spice shop in [[Wikipedia:Taliparamba|Taliparamba]], India

File:Taliparamba grocery.jpg|Spices sold in [[Taliparamba]], India

File:Taliparamba grocery.jpg|Spices sold in [[Wikipedia:Taliparamba|Taliparamba]], India

File:Spice seller, Kashgar market.jpg|Spice seller, [[Kashgar]] market

File:Spice seller, Kashgar market.jpg|Spice seller, [[Wikipedia:Kashgar|Kashgar]] market

File:Spice Market, Marakech (2242330035).jpg|Spice market, [[Marrakesh]], Morocco

File:Spice Market, Marakech (2242330035).jpg|Spice market, [[Wikipedia:Marrakesh]|Marrakesh]], Morocco

</gallery>

</div>

@@ Line 24: / Line 24: @@
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ==Etymology==
-The word ''spice'' originated in [[Middle English]] which came from the [[Old French]] words {{Lang|fro|espece}}'', {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}},'' and {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}}. According to the ''[[Middle English Dictionary]]'', the Old French words came from [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-French]] ''spece''; according to [[Merriam-Webster|Merriam Webster]], the Old-French words came from Anglo-French ''espece,'' and ''espis''. Both publications agree that the Anglo-French words derived from [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|species}}. [[Middle English]] {{Lang|enm|spice}} had its first known use as a noun in the 13th century.
+The word ''spice'' originated in [[Wikipedia:Middle English|Middle English]] which came from the [[Wikipedia:Old French|Old French]] words {{Lang|fro|espece}}'', {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}},'' and {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}}. According to the ''[[Wikipedia:Middle English Dictionary|Middle English Dictionary]]'', the Old French words came from [[:en:Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-French]] ''spece''; according to [[:en:Merriam-Webster|Merriam Webster]], the Old-French words came from Anglo-French ''espece,'' and ''espis''. Both publications agree that the Anglo-French words derived from [[Wikipedia:Latin|Latin]] {{Lang|la|species}}. [[Wikipedia:Middle English|Middle English]] {{Lang|enm|spice}} had its first known use as a noun in the 13th century.
 </div>
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ===Early history===
-The spice trade developed throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000&nbsp;BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.
+The spice trade developed throughout the [[Wikipedia:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] by at earliest 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[Wikipedia:East Asia|East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[:en:Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]] and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. By 1000&nbsp;BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[Wikipedia:China|China]], [[Wikipedia:Korea|Korea]], and [[Wikipedia:India|India]]. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
-[[Clove]]s were used in [[Mesopotamia]] by 1700&nbsp;BCE. The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Banda Islands]] in [[Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.
+[[Clove]]s were used in [[Wikipedia:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] by 1700&nbsp;BCE. The ancient Indian [[Wikipedia:Indian epic poetry|epic|Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Wikipedia:Ramayana|Ramayana]] mentions cloves. The [[:en:Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Wikipedia:Pliny the Elder|Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Wikipedia:Ebers Papyrus|Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Wikipedia:Banda Islands|Banda Islands]] in [[Wikipedia:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
-Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[port city]] of [[Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.
+Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Wikipedia:Arab|Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[Wikipedia:port city|port city]] of [[Wikipedia:Alexandria|Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[Wikipedia:monsoon|monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
-Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Old Testament]]. In [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.
+Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Wikipedia:Old Testament|Old Testament]]. In [[:en:Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[:en:Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[:en:Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Wikipedia:manna|manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Wikipedia:Song of Solomon|Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ===Middle Ages===
-[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]
+[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|left|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[Wikipedia:The Travels of Marco Polo|The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]
-Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]],<sup>[[Spice#cite note-5|[5]]]</sup> the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food,<sup>[[Spice#cite note-6|[6]]]</sup> a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[wine]], and was not alone among [[European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.
+Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Wikipedia:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[Wikipedia:humorism|humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food, a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[Wikipedia:pandemic|pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[Wikipedia:King of Aragon|King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to [[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[Wikipedia:wine|wine]], and was not alone among [[:en:European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
-Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000&nbsp;tons of pepper and 1,000&nbsp;tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].
+Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Wikipedia:Republic of Venice|Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[Wikipedia:maritime republics|maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000&nbsp;tons of pepper and 1,000&nbsp;tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Wikipedia:Late Middle Ages|Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[:en:Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]] and [[cubeb]].
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ===Early modern period===
-[[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[New World]]. He described to [[investor]]s new spices available there.
+[[Wikipedia:Spain|Spain]] and [[Wikipedia:Portugal|Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[:en:Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Wikipedia:Vasco da Gama|Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[Wikipedia:India|India]] in 1499. When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Wikipedia:Venice|Venice]]. At around the same time, [[Wikipedia:Christopher Columbus|Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[Wikipedia:New World|New World]]. He described to [[Wikipedia:investor|investor]]s new spices available there.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
-Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Ormuz]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[viceroy]] of the [[Indies]], he took [[Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Malacca]] on the [[Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[Thailand|Siam]], [[China]], and the [[Maluku Islands]].
+Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th century was the [[:en:Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Wikipedia:Dubrovnik|Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia. The military prowess of [[Wikipedia:Afonso de Albuquerque|Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Wikipedia:Socotra|Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Wikipedia:Red Sea|Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Wikipedia:Ormuz|Ormuz]] in the [[Wikipedia:Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[Wikipedia:viceroy|viceroy]] of the [[Wikipedia:Indies|Indies]], he took [[Wikipedia:Goa|Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Wikipedia:Malacca|Malacca]] on the [[Wikipedia:Malay peninsula|Malay peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[:en:Thailand|Siam]], [[Wikipedia:China|China]], and the [[Wikipedia:Maluku Islands|Maluku Islands]].
 </div>
@@ Line 75: / Line 75: @@
 ==Function==
 [[File:Common Indian spices.jpg|thumb|Turmeric powder, mustard seeds, chili powder, cumin seeds|alt=Chili powder, mustard seeds, turmeric powder, cumin seeds]]
-Spices are primarily used as food [[flavoring]] or to create variety. They are also used to perfume [[cosmetics]] and [[incense]]. At various periods, many spices have been believed to have medicinal value. Finally, since they are expensive, rare, and exotic commodities, their [[conspicuous consumption]] has often been a symbol of wealth and social class.
+Spices are primarily used as food [[flavoring]] or to create variety. They are also used to perfume [[Wikipedia:cosmetics|cosmetics]] and [[Wikipedia:incense|incense]]. At various periods, many spices have been believed to have medicinal value. Finally, since they are expensive, rare, and exotic commodities, their [[Wikipedia:conspicuous consumption|conspicuous consumption]] has often been a symbol of wealth and social class.
 </div>
@@ Line 81: / Line 81: @@
 ===Preservative claim===
 {{quote box|align=right|width=35%|The most popular explanation for the love of spices in the Middle Ages is that they were used to preserve meat from spoiling, or to cover up the taste of meat that had already gone off. This compelling but false idea constitutes something of an urban legend, a story so instinctively attractive that mere fact seems unable to wipe it out... Anyone who could afford spices could easily find meat fresher than what city dwellers today buy in their local supermarket.}}
-It is often claimed that spices were used either as [[food preservation|food preservatives]] or to mask the taste of [[Meat spoilage|spoiled meat]], especially in the European [[Middle Ages]]. This is false. In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to [[salting (food)|salting]], [[smoking (cooking)|smoking]], [[pickling]], or [[food drying|drying]], and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat. Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper. There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever." Indeed, [[Cristoforo di Messisbugo]] suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage.
+It is often claimed that spices were used either as [[:en:food preservation|food preservatives]] or to mask the taste of [[:en:Meat spoilage|spoiled meat]], especially in the European [[Wikipedia:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]]. This is false. In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to [[:en:salting (food)|salting]], [[:en:smoking (cooking)|smoking]], [[:en:pickling|pickling]], or [[:en:food drying|drying]], and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat. Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper. There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever." Indeed, [[Wikipedia:Cristoforo di Messisbugo|Cristoforo di Messisbugo]] suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage.
 </div>
@@ Line 117: / Line 117: @@
 {{main|Spice mix}}
 {{Div col|colwidth=28em}}
-* [[Advieh]] ([[Iran]])
+* [[Advieh]] ([[Wikipedia:Iran|Iran]])
-* [[Baharat]] ([[Arab world]], and the [[Middle East]] in general)
+* [[Baharat]] ([[Wikipedia:Arab world|Arab world]], and the [[Wikipedia:Middle East|Middle East]] in general)
-* [[Berbere]] ([[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]] and [[Somalia]])
+* [[Berbere]] ([[Wikipedia:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[Wikipedia:Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Wikipedia:Somalia|Somalia]])
 * [[Bumbu (seasoning)|Bumbu]] ([[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesia]])
-* [[Cajun cuisine#Blended|Cajun]] ([[United States]])
+* [[Cajun cuisine#Blended|Cajun]] ([[Wikipedia:United States|United States]])
-* [[Chaat masala]] ([[Indian subcontinent]])
+* [[Chaat masala]] ([[Wikipedia:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]])
 * [[Chili pepper|Chili]] [[Chili powder|powder]] and [[crushed red pepper]] ([[Cayenne pepper|Cayenne]], [[Chipotle]], [[Jalapeño]], [[New Mexico chile|New Mexico]], [[Tabasco pepper|Tabasco]], and [[List of Capsicum cultivars|other cultivars]])
 * [[Curry powder]]
-* [[Five-spice powder]] ([[China]])
+* [[Five-spice powder]] ([[Wikipedia:China|China]])
 * [[Garam masala]] (Indian subcontinent)
-* [[Harissa]] ([[North Africa]])
+* [[Harissa]] ([[Wikipedia:North Africa|North Africa]])
-* [[Hawaij]] ([[Yemen]])
+* [[Hawaij]] ([[Wikipedia:Yemen|Yemen]])
-* [[Jamaican jerk spice|Jerk spice]] ([[Jamaica]])
+* [[Jamaican jerk spice|Jerk spice]] ([[Wikipedia:Jamaica|Jamaica]])
 * [[Khmeli suneli]] (Georgia, former U.S.S.R.)
 * [[Masala (spice)|Masala]] (a generic name for any mix used in the Indian subcontinent)
-* [[Mixed spice]] ([[United Kingdom]])
+* [[Mixed spice]] ([[Wikipedia:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]])
 * [[Panch phoron]] (Indian subcontinent)
-* [[Pumpkin pie spice]] ([[United States]])
+* [[Pumpkin pie spice]] ([[Wikipedia:United States|United States]])
-* [[Quatre épices]] ([[France]])
+* [[Quatre épices]] ([[Wikipedia:France|France]])
-* [[Ras el hanout]] ([[North Africa]])
+* [[Ras el hanout]] ([[Wikipedia:North Africa|North Africa]])
-* [[Sharena sol]] (literally "colorful salt", [[Bulgaria]])
+* [[Sharena sol]] (literally "colorful salt", [[Wikipedia:Bulgaria|Bulgaria]])
-* [[Shichimi|Shichimi tōgarashi]] ([[Japan]])
+* [[Shichimi|Shichimi tōgarashi]] ([[Wikipedia:Japan|Japan]])
-* [[Speculaas]] ([[Belgium]] and [[Netherlands]])
+* [[Speculaas]] ([[Wikipedia:Belgium|Belgium]] and [[Wikipedia:Netherlands|Netherlands]])
-* Thuna Paha ([[Sri Lanka]])
+* Thuna Paha ([[Wikipedia:Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]])
-* [[Podravka#Consumer brands|Vegeta]] ([[Croatia]])
+* [[Podravka#Consumer brands|Vegeta]] ([[Wikipedia:Croatia|Croatia]])
 * [[Za'atar]] (Middle East)
 {{Div col end}}
@@ Line 157: / Line 157: @@
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 [[File:Peugeot pepper mill.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.50|Pepper mill]]
-For ground spices, to grind a whole spice, the classic tool is [[mortar and pestle]]. Less labor-intensive tools are more common now: a [[microplane]] or fine [[grater]] can be used to grind small amounts; a [[blade grinder|coffee grinder]] is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or [[Burr mill#Manual burr grinders|mill]].
+For ground spices, to grind a whole spice, the classic tool is [[Wikipedia:mortar and pestle|mortar and pestle]]. Less labor-intensive tools are more common now: a [[Wikipedia:microplane|microplane]] or fine [[Wikipedia:grater|grater]] can be used to grind small amounts; a [[:en:blade grinder|coffee grinder]] is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or [[:en:Burr mill#Manual burr grinders|mill]].
 </div>
@@ Line 171: / Line 171: @@
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ===Salmonella contamination===
-A study by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by ''[[Salmonella]]'' bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. [[Food irradiation]] is said to minimise this risk.
+A study by the [[Wikipedia:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]] of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by ''[[Salmonella]]'' bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. [[Wikipedia:Food irradiation|Food irradiation]] is said to minimise this risk.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ==Health research==
-Spices have been claimed to have health effects during both ancient and current times; for example, in 2017, the [[The Washington Post|''Washington Post'']] said spices put "a natural pharmacy in your kitchen". The supposed health benefits include antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and benefits towards certain diseases. A 2019 systematic review looked at studies of 25 spices and concluded that there is not enough evidence yet to support these supposed benefits, and that "further work is needed". The review noted that many studies were conducted by administering capsule or "artificial" forms of the spices, but spices are not normally consumed in this manner, and are normally consumed along other foods. Spices may reduce the need for salt as a flavoring agent in dishes, which has cardiovascular benefits.
+Spices have been claimed to have health effects during both ancient and current times; for example, in 2017, the [[:en:The Washington Post|''Washington Post'']] said spices put "a natural pharmacy in your kitchen". The supposed health benefits include antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and benefits towards certain diseases. A 2019 systematic review looked at studies of 25 spices and concluded that there is not enough evidence yet to support these supposed benefits, and that "further work is needed". The review noted that many studies were conducted by administering capsule or "artificial" forms of the spices, but spices are not normally consumed in this manner, and are normally consumed along other foods. Spices may reduce the need for salt as a flavoring agent in dishes, which has cardiovascular benefits.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ==Production==
-[[File:Spices in an Indian market.jpg|thumb|right|Spices and herbs at a shop in [[Goa]], India]]
+[[File:Spices in an Indian market.jpg|thumb|right|Spices and herbs at a shop in [[Wikipedia:Goa|Goa]], India]]
 {| class="sortable wikitable" style="float:left;
 |+ Top Spice Producing Countries <br />(in metric tonnes)
@@ Line 209: / Line 209: @@
 | 10 || Sri Lanka || 8,293 || 8,438
 |- bgcolor="#cccccc"
-| — || ''[[World]]'' || 1,995,523 || 2,063,472
+| — || ''[[Wikipedia:World|World]]'' || 1,995,523 || 2,063,472
 |-
-|colspan=4 | ''Source: [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]''
+|colspan=4 | ''Source: [[Wikipedia:FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization|FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]''
 |}
 {{Clear}}
@@ Line 218: / Line 218: @@
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ==Standardization==
-The [[International Organization for Standardization]] addresses spices and [[condiment]]s, along with related food additives, as part of the [[International Classification for Standards]] 67.220 series.
+The [[Wikipedia:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]] addresses spices and [[Wikipedia:condiment|condiment]]s, along with related food additives, as part of the [[Wikipedia:International Classification for Standards|International Classification for Standards]] 67.220 series.
 </div>
 <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">
 ==Research==
-The [[Indian Institute of Spices Research]] in [[Kozhikode]], Kerala, is devoted exclusively to conducting research for ten spice crops: black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, clove, [[garcinia]], ginger, nutmeg, paprika, turmeric, and vanilla.
+The [[Indian Institute of Spices Research]] in [[Wikipedia:Kozhikode|Kozhikode]], Kerala, is devoted exclusively to conducting research for ten spice crops: black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, clove, [[garcinia]], ginger, nutmeg, paprika, turmeric, and vanilla.
 </div>
@@ Line 229: / Line 229: @@
 ==Gallery==
 <gallery mode="packed">
-File:Gato negro.jpg|The ''Gato Negro'' café and spice shop ([[Buenos Aires]], Argentina)
+File:Gato negro.jpg|The ''Gato Negro'' café and spice shop ([[Wikipedia:Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires]], Argentina)
 File:Spice shop, Mashad, Iran.jpg|A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran
 File:Night Spice market in Casablanca.JPG|Night spice shop in Casablanca, Morocco
-File:Taliparamba Market.jpg|A spice shop in [[Taliparamba]], India
+File:Taliparamba Market.jpg|A spice shop in [[Wikipedia:Taliparamba|Taliparamba]], India
-File:Taliparamba grocery.jpg|Spices sold in [[Taliparamba]], India
+File:Taliparamba grocery.jpg|Spices sold in [[Wikipedia:Taliparamba|Taliparamba]], India
-File:Spice seller, Kashgar market.jpg|Spice seller, [[Kashgar]] market
+File:Spice seller, Kashgar market.jpg|Spice seller, [[Wikipedia:Kashgar|Kashgar]] market
-File:Spice Market, Marakech (2242330035).jpg|Spice market, [[Marrakesh]], Morocco
+File:Spice Market, Marakech (2242330035).jpg|Spice market, [[Wikipedia:Marrakesh]|Marrakesh]], Morocco
 </gallery>
 </div>