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{{Short description|Culinary traditions of Myanmar}}
{{Short description|Culinary traditions of Myanmar}}
{{Culture of Burma|expanded=Cuisine}}
{{Culture of Burma|expanded=Cuisine}}
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'''Burmese cuisine''' encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions of [[Myanmar]], which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighboring countries at the confluence of [[Southeast Asia]], [[East Asia]], and [[South Asia]], such as modern-day nations of Thailand, China, and India, respectively.
'''Burmese cuisine''' encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions of [[Myanmar]], which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighboring countries at the confluence of [[Southeast Asia]], [[East Asia]], and [[South Asia]], such as modern-day nations of Thailand, China, and India, respectively.


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[[File:Pickled tea (lahpet).JPG|thumb|''Laphet'', served in a traditional lacquer tray called ''laphet ok''.]]
[[File:Pickled tea (lahpet).JPG|thumb|''Laphet'', served in a traditional lacquer tray called ''laphet ok''.]]


<!--T:3-->
Burmese cuisine is typified by a wide-ranging array of dishes, including traditional [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]] and stews, [[Burmese salads]], accompanied by soups and a medley of vegetables that are traditionally eaten with [[white rice]]. Burmese curries are generally distinguished from other Southeast Asian curries in the former's prominent use of an aromatic trio of garlic, shallots, and ginger (in common with South Asian curries), and the general lack of [[coconut milk]].
Burmese cuisine is typified by a wide-ranging array of dishes, including traditional [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]] and stews, [[Burmese salads]], accompanied by soups and a medley of vegetables that are traditionally eaten with [[white rice]]. Burmese curries are generally distinguished from other Southeast Asian curries in the former's prominent use of an aromatic trio of garlic, shallots, and ginger (in common with South Asian curries), and the general lack of [[coconut milk]].


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Burmese cuisine also features [[Indian bread]]s as well as noodles, which are fried or prepared in salads and [[noodle soup]]s, chief among them [[mohinga]]. [[Street food]] and snack culture has also nurtured the profuse variety of traditional [[Burmese fritters]] and modern savory and sweet snacks labeled under the umbrella of ''[[Mont (food)|mont]]''.
Burmese cuisine also features [[Indian bread]]s as well as noodles, which are fried or prepared in salads and [[noodle soup]]s, chief among them [[mohinga]]. [[Street food]] and snack culture has also nurtured the profuse variety of traditional [[Burmese fritters]] and modern savory and sweet snacks labeled under the umbrella of ''[[Mont (food)|mont]]''.


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The contrasting flavor profile of Burmese cuisine is broadly captured in the phrase ''chin ngan sat'' ({{lang|my|ချဉ်ငန်စပ် <!--correct spelling is ငန်, not ငံ-->}}), which literally means "sour, salty, and spicy." A popular Burmese rhyme — "of all the fruit, the [[mango]]'s the best; of all the meat, the [[pork]]'s the best; and of all the vegetables, [[lahpet]]'s (tea leaves are) the best" — sums up the traditional favourites.
The contrasting flavor profile of Burmese cuisine is broadly captured in the phrase ''chin ngan sat'' ({{lang|my|ချဉ်ငန်စပ် <!--correct spelling is ငန်, not ငံ-->}}), which literally means "sour, salty, and spicy." A popular Burmese rhyme — "of all the fruit, the [[mango]]'s the best; of all the meat, the [[pork]]'s the best; and of all the vegetables, [[lahpet]]'s (tea leaves are) the best" — sums up the traditional favourites.


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==History==
==History==
[[File:Saya Chone's "Royal Ploughing Ceremony".png|thumb|A traditional Burmese painting depicts the [[Royal Ploughing Ceremony]], during which the monarch ceremonially ploughs a rice field outside the royal palace, to mark the traditional start of the rice-growing season.]]
[[File:Saya Chone's "Royal Ploughing Ceremony".png|thumb|A traditional Burmese painting depicts the [[Royal Ploughing Ceremony]], during which the monarch ceremonially ploughs a rice field outside the royal palace, to mark the traditional start of the rice-growing season.]]


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Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia of [[Rice production in Myanmar|rice cultivation]], which first emerged in the country's [[Chindwin River|Chindwin]], [[Irrawaddy River|Ayeyarwady]], and [[Salween River|Thanlwin river]] valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE. By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished in the region, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants.
Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia of [[Rice production in Myanmar|rice cultivation]], which first emerged in the country's [[Chindwin River|Chindwin]], [[Irrawaddy River|Ayeyarwady]], and [[Salween River|Thanlwin river]] valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE. By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished in the region, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants.


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In addition to rice, [[tea]] originated in the borderlands separating Myanmar from China, precipitating a longstanding tradition of tea consumption and the development of pickled tea known as [[Lahpet|''laphet'']], which continues to play a pivotal role in Burmese ritual culture. This longstanding history is reflected in the [[Burmese language]], which is among the few world languages whose word for "tea" is not etymologically traced back to the Chinese word for "tea" (see [[etymology of tea]]).
In addition to rice, [[tea]] originated in the borderlands separating Myanmar from China, precipitating a longstanding tradition of tea consumption and the development of pickled tea known as [[Lahpet|''laphet'']], which continues to play a pivotal role in Burmese ritual culture. This longstanding history is reflected in the [[Burmese language]], which is among the few world languages whose word for "tea" is not etymologically traced back to the Chinese word for "tea" (see [[etymology of tea]]).


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Agrarian settlements were settled by ancestors of Myanmar's modern-day ethnolinguistic groups. From these settlements emerged a succession of Burmese, Mon, Shan, Rakhine-speaking kingdoms and tributary states that now make up contemporary Myanmar. Paddy rice cultivation remains synonymous with the predominantly [[Buddhist]] [[Bamar people|Bamar]], [[Mon people|Mon]], [[Shan people|Shan]], and [[Rakhine people]]s who inhabit the country's fertile lowlands and plateaus.
Agrarian settlements were settled by ancestors of Myanmar's modern-day ethnolinguistic groups. From these settlements emerged a succession of Burmese, Mon, Shan, Rakhine-speaking kingdoms and tributary states that now make up contemporary Myanmar. Paddy rice cultivation remains synonymous with the predominantly [[Buddhist]] [[Bamar people|Bamar]], [[Mon people|Mon]], [[Shan people|Shan]], and [[Rakhine people]]s who inhabit the country's fertile lowlands and plateaus.


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Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The [[Columbian exchange]] in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including [[tomato]]es, [[chili pepper]]s, [[peanut]]s, and [[potato]]es. A series of [[Burmese–Siamese wars]] between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, including [[Khanon htok|''khanon dok'']], ''[[shwe yin aye]]'', [[Cendol|''mont let hsaung'']], and [[Mont di|''Yodaya mont di'']].
Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The [[Columbian exchange]] in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including [[tomato]]es, [[chili pepper]]s, [[peanut]]s, and [[potato]]es. A series of [[Burmese–Siamese wars]] between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, including [[Khanon htok|''khanon dok'']], ''[[shwe yin aye]]'', [[Cendol|''mont let hsaung'']], and [[Mont di|''Yodaya mont di'']].


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[[File:Hsun laung, Mandalay, Myanmar.JPG|thumb|Buddhist monks in [[Mandalay]] receive food alms from a ''[[htamanè]]'' hawker during their daily alms round (ဆွမ်းလောင်းလှည့်).]]
[[File:Hsun laung, Mandalay, Myanmar.JPG|thumb|Buddhist monks in [[Mandalay]] receive food alms from a ''[[htamanè]]'' hawker during their daily alms round (ဆွမ်းလောင်းလှည့်).]]


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While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms ([[dāna]]), and communal feasts called ''[[satuditha]]'' and ''ahlu pwe'' (အလှူပွဲ). One of the few remaining pre-colonial cookbooks is the ''Sadawhset Kyan'' ({{lang|my|စားတော်ဆက်ကျမ်း}}, {{lit|Treatise on Royal Foods}}), written on a [[Palm-leaf manuscript|palm leaf manuscript]] in 1866 during the [[Konbaung dynasty]]. By the [[Konbaung dynasty]] (16th to 19th centuries), elaborate preparations of food played a central role in key court ceremonies (e.g., [[Nāmakaraṇa|naming ceremonies]], [[Marriage in Myanmar|wedding ceremonies]], etc.), including as ritual offerings to Hindu and [[Nat (spirit)|indigenous deities]], and as celebratory meals for attendees. By the Konbaung period, 126 distinct varieties of rice were cultivated in the country.
While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms ([[dāna]]), and communal feasts called ''[[satuditha]]'' and ''ahlu pwe'' (အလှူပွဲ). One of the few remaining pre-colonial cookbooks is the ''Sadawhset Kyan'' ({{lang|my|စားတော်ဆက်ကျမ်း}}, {{lit|Treatise on Royal Foods}}), written on a [[Palm-leaf manuscript|palm leaf manuscript]] in 1866 during the [[Konbaung dynasty]]. By the [[Konbaung dynasty]] (16th to 19th centuries), elaborate preparations of food played a central role in key court ceremonies (e.g., [[Nāmakaraṇa|naming ceremonies]], [[Marriage in Myanmar|wedding ceremonies]], etc.), including as ritual offerings to Hindu and [[Nat (spirit)|indigenous deities]], and as celebratory meals for attendees. By the Konbaung period, 126 distinct varieties of rice were cultivated in the country.


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[[British rule in Burma]] between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment of [[Burmese Indians|Burmese Indian]] and [[Chinese people in Myanmar|Sino-Burmese]] communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine. These range from [[Indian bread]]s such as [[naan]] and [[paratha]] to Chinese [[stir frying]] techniques and ingredients like [[tofu]] and [[soy sauce]].
[[British rule in Burma]] between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment of [[Burmese Indians|Burmese Indian]] and [[Chinese people in Myanmar|Sino-Burmese]] communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine. These range from [[Indian bread]]s such as [[naan]] and [[paratha]] to Chinese [[stir frying]] techniques and ingredients like [[tofu]] and [[soy sauce]].


==Etiquette and customs==
==Etiquette and customs== <!--T:14-->


=== Dining ===
=== Dining === <!--T:15-->


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[[File:Myanma cuisine.jpg|thumb|A traditional Burmese meal includes a bowl of soup, rice, several meat curries, and ''ngapi yay'' (a dip or dipping sauce) with ''tozaya'' (vegetables for dipping).]]
[[File:Myanma cuisine.jpg|thumb|A traditional Burmese meal includes a bowl of soup, rice, several meat curries, and ''ngapi yay'' (a dip or dipping sauce) with ''tozaya'' (vegetables for dipping).]]


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Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table or ''[[daunglan]]'', while sitting on a bamboo mat. Dishes are simultaneously served and shared. A traditional meal includes steamed white rice as the main dish accompanied by [[Burmese curries]], a light soup or consommé, and other side dishes, including fried vegetables, [[Burmese fritters]], and ''ngapi yay gyo'' (ငါးပိရည်ကျို), a plate of fresh and blanched vegetables served with pickled fish dip. The meal is then finished with a piece of [[palm sugar]] or [[Lahpet|''laphet'']] (fermented tea leaves).
Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table or ''[[daunglan]]'', while sitting on a bamboo mat. Dishes are simultaneously served and shared. A traditional meal includes steamed white rice as the main dish accompanied by [[Burmese curries]], a light soup or consommé, and other side dishes, including fried vegetables, [[Burmese fritters]], and ''ngapi yay gyo'' (ငါးပိရည်ကျို), a plate of fresh and blanched vegetables served with pickled fish dip. The meal is then finished with a piece of [[palm sugar]] or [[Lahpet|''laphet'']] (fermented tea leaves).


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Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known as ''u cha'' ({{lang|my|ဦးချ}}, {{lit|first serve}}).
Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known as ''u cha'' ({{lang|my|ဦးချ}}, {{lit|first serve}}).


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The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths. Chopsticks and [[Chinese spoon|Chinese-style spoons]] are used for noodle dishes, although noodle salads are more likely to be eaten with just a spoon. Western-style utensils, especially forks and knives, have gained currency in recent years.
The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths. Chopsticks and [[Chinese spoon|Chinese-style spoons]] are used for noodle dishes, although noodle salads are more likely to be eaten with just a spoon. Western-style utensils, especially forks and knives, have gained currency in recent years.


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In traditional Burmese eateries, green tea and numerous side dishes are served complimentary alongside the main dishes and rice.
In traditional Burmese eateries, green tea and numerous side dishes are served complimentary alongside the main dishes and rice.


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=== Religious practices ===
=== Religious practices ===
The country's diverse religious makeup influences its cuisine, as Buddhists and Hindus traditionally avoid [[beef]] and Muslims [[pork]]. Beef is considered taboo by devout Buddhists and farmers because the cow is highly regarded as a [[pack animal|beast of burden]]. [[Vegetarian]]ism is commonly practiced by Buddhists during the three-month [[Vassa]] (ဝါတွင်း) between July and October, as well as during [[Uposatha]] days, reflected in the Burmese word for "vegetarian," ''thet that lut'' (သက်သတ်လွတ်, {{lit|free of killing}}). During this time, devout Buddhists observe [[Eight precepts|eight or more precepts]], including fasting rules that restrict food intake to two daily meals (i.e., breakfast and lunch) taken before noon.
The country's diverse religious makeup influences its cuisine, as Buddhists and Hindus traditionally avoid [[beef]] and Muslims [[pork]]. Beef is considered taboo by devout Buddhists and farmers because the cow is highly regarded as a [[pack animal|beast of burden]]. [[Vegetarian]]ism is commonly practiced by Buddhists during the three-month [[Vassa]] (ဝါတွင်း) between July and October, as well as during [[Uposatha]] days, reflected in the Burmese word for "vegetarian," ''thet that lut'' (သက်သတ်လွတ်, {{lit|free of killing}}). During this time, devout Buddhists observe [[Eight precepts|eight or more precepts]], including fasting rules that restrict food intake to two daily meals (i.e., breakfast and lunch) taken before noon.


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=== Beef taboo ===
=== Beef taboo ===
The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals. Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power. Few people eat beef, and there is a general dislike of beef (especially among the [[Bamar]] and [[Burmese Chinese]]), although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like the [[Kachin people|Kachin]]. Buddhists, when giving up meat during the Buddhist ([[Vassa]]) or [[Uposatha]] days, will forego beef first. Butchers tend to be Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine of [[ahimsa]] (no harm).
The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals. Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power. Few people eat beef, and there is a general dislike of beef (especially among the [[Bamar]] and [[Burmese Chinese]]), although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like the [[Kachin people|Kachin]]. Buddhists, when giving up meat during the Buddhist ([[Vassa]]) or [[Uposatha]] days, will forego beef first. Butchers tend to be Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine of [[ahimsa]] (no harm).


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During the country's last dynasty, the [[Konbaung dynasty]], habitual consumption of beef was punishable by public [[flogging]]. In 1885, [[Ledi Sayadaw]], a prominent [[Buddhist monk]] wrote the ''Nwa-myitta-sa'' ({{lang|my|နွားမေတ္တာစာ}}), a poetic prose letter which argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound. He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance.
During the country's last dynasty, the [[Konbaung dynasty]], habitual consumption of beef was punishable by public [[flogging]]. In 1885, [[Ledi Sayadaw]], a prominent [[Buddhist monk]] wrote the ''Nwa-myitta-sa'' ({{lang|my|နွားမေတ္တာစာ}}), a poetic prose letter which argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound. He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance.


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On 29 August 1961, the [[Hluttaw|Burmese Parliament]] passed the State Religion Promotion Act of 1961, which explicitly banned the slaughtering of cattle nationwide (beef became known as ''todo tha'' ({{lang|my|တိုးတိုးသား}}); {{Literal translation|hush hush meat}}). Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licences to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, after [[Ne Win]] led a [[1962 Burmese coup d'état|coup d'état]] and declared martial law in the country.
On 29 August 1961, the [[Hluttaw|Burmese Parliament]] passed the State Religion Promotion Act of 1961, which explicitly banned the slaughtering of cattle nationwide (beef became known as ''todo tha'' ({{lang|my|တိုးတိုးသား}}); {{Literal translation|hush hush meat}}). Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licences to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, after [[Ne Win]] led a [[1962 Burmese coup d'état|coup d'état]] and declared martial law in the country.


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===Food theories===
===Food theories===
In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating ({{lang|my|အပူစာ}}, ''apu za'') or cooling ({{lang|my|အအေးစာ}}, ''a-aye za''), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to the [[Chinese food therapy|Chinese classification of food]]. Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish.
In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating ({{lang|my|အပူစာ}}, ''apu za'') or cooling ({{lang|my|အအေးစာ}}, ''a-aye za''), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to the [[Chinese food therapy|Chinese classification of food]]. Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish.


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The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especially [[pregnancy]]. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili, due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hairs.
The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especially [[pregnancy]]. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili, due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hairs.


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==Cooking techniques==
==Cooking techniques==
[[File:20200207 083817 Market Mawlamyaing Myanmar anagoria.jpg|thumb|Beans and pulses are commonly used in Burmese cuisine.]]Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance. Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques. [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]] use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger.
[[File:20200207 083817 Market Mawlamyaing Myanmar anagoria.jpg|thumb|Beans and pulses are commonly used in Burmese cuisine.]]Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance. Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques. [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]] use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger.


== Regional cuisines ==
== Regional cuisines == <!--T:28-->


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[[File:Inle dish.jpg|thumb|''[[Htamin jin]]'', 'fermented' rice kneaded with fish and/or potato with twice-fried [[Burmese tofu|Shan tofu]], is a popular local dish at [[Inle Lake]].]]
[[File:Inle dish.jpg|thumb|''[[Htamin jin]]'', 'fermented' rice kneaded with fish and/or potato with twice-fried [[Burmese tofu|Shan tofu]], is a popular local dish at [[Inle Lake]].]]


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Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions of [[Upper Myanmar]], which is inland and landlocked; and [[Lower Myanmar]], which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and the [[Andaman Sea]]. Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated with [[Rakhine people|Rakhine]] cuisine. Southern Myanmar, particularly the area around [[Mawlamyine|Mawlamyaing]], is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food."
Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions of [[Upper Myanmar]], which is inland and landlocked; and [[Lower Myanmar]], which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and the [[Andaman Sea]]. Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated with [[Rakhine people|Rakhine]] cuisine. Southern Myanmar, particularly the area around [[Mawlamyine|Mawlamyaing]], is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food."


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Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, including [[Yangon]] and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products like [[fish sauce]] and [[ngapi]] (fermented seafood). The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland ([[Mandalay Region|Mandalay]], [[Magway Region|Magway]], and [[Sagaing Region]]s), [[Shan State]], and [[Kachin State]]s, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans. The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs.
Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, including [[Yangon]] and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products like [[fish sauce]] and [[ngapi]] (fermented seafood). The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland ([[Mandalay Region|Mandalay]], [[Magway Region|Magway]], and [[Sagaing Region]]s), [[Shan State]], and [[Kachin State]]s, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans. The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs.


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Fusion [[Chettiar]] ({{lang|my|ချစ်တီးကုလား}}) cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities.
Fusion [[Chettiar]] ({{lang|my|ချစ်တီးကုလား}}) cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities.


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==Dishes and ingredients==
==Dishes and ingredients==
{{Main|List of Burmese dishes|List of Ingredients in Burmese cuisine}}
{{Main|List of Burmese dishes|List of Ingredients in Burmese cuisine}}


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Burmese cuisine incorporates numerous local ingredients that are less frequently used in other Southeast Asian cuisines, among them sour [[Roselle (plant)|roselle leaves]], astringent [[Pennywort|pennywort leaves]], [[Goat meat|goat]], [[Lamb and mutton|mutton]], and dried beans and lentils.
Burmese cuisine incorporates numerous local ingredients that are less frequently used in other Southeast Asian cuisines, among them sour [[Roselle (plant)|roselle leaves]], astringent [[Pennywort|pennywort leaves]], [[Goat meat|goat]], [[Lamb and mutton|mutton]], and dried beans and lentils.


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Because a standardised system of [[romanisation]] for spoken [[Burmese language|Burmese]] does not exist, pronunciations of the following dishes in modern standard Burmese approximated using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] are provided (see [[Help:IPA/Burmese|IPA/Burmese]] for details).
Because a standardised system of [[romanisation]] for spoken [[Burmese language|Burmese]] does not exist, pronunciations of the following dishes in modern standard Burmese approximated using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] are provided (see [[Help:IPA/Burmese|IPA/Burmese]] for details).


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===Preserved foods===
===Preserved foods===
{{Main|Ngapi|Lahpet}}
{{Main|Ngapi|Lahpet}}


<!--T:37-->
[[File:Typical Burmese Meal (29386485528).jpg|thumb|A plate of ''ngapi yay gyo'' is surrounded by an assortment of traditional Burmese side dishes.]][[Myanmar]] is one of very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten as [[lahpet]], pickled tea served with various accompaniments. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated by the [[Palaung people]]. Pickled tea leaves continue to play an important role in [[Burmese culture]] today.
[[File:Typical Burmese Meal (29386485528).jpg|thumb|A plate of ''ngapi yay gyo'' is surrounded by an assortment of traditional Burmese side dishes.]][[Myanmar]] is one of very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten as [[lahpet]], pickled tea served with various accompaniments. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated by the [[Palaung people]]. Pickled tea leaves continue to play an important role in [[Burmese culture]] today.


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''[[Ngapi]]'' ({{lang|my|ငါးပိ}}), a fermented paste made from salted fish or shrimp, is considered the cornerstone of any Burmese traditional meal. It is used to season many soups, salads, curries and dishes, and condiments, imparting a rich [[umami]] flavor. The ''ngapi'' of [[Rakhine State]] contains no or little salt, and uses marine fish. Meanwhile, ngapi made with freshwater fish is common in Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi regions. [[Shrimp paste#Ngapi yay|''Ngapi yay'']] ({{lang|my|ငါးပိရည်}}) is an essential part of Karen and Bamar cuisine, in which a sauce dip of ''ngapi'' cooked in various vegetables and spices is served with blanched and fresh vegetables, similar to Thai ''[[nam phrik]]'', Indonesian ''[[lalab]]'', and Malay [[Ulam (salad)|''ulam'']]. Pickled fish, called ''[[ngachin]]'', is also used in Burmese cooking.[[File:Dried fermented bean cakes.jpg|thumb|Dried fermented bean cakes called ''pè bok'' are grilled or fried in Shan cooking.]]
''[[Ngapi]]'' ({{lang|my|ငါးပိ}}), a fermented paste made from salted fish or shrimp, is considered the cornerstone of any Burmese traditional meal. It is used to season many soups, salads, curries and dishes, and condiments, imparting a rich [[umami]] flavor. The ''ngapi'' of [[Rakhine State]] contains no or little salt, and uses marine fish. Meanwhile, ngapi made with freshwater fish is common in Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi regions. [[Shrimp paste#Ngapi yay|''Ngapi yay'']] ({{lang|my|ငါးပိရည်}}) is an essential part of Karen and Bamar cuisine, in which a sauce dip of ''ngapi'' cooked in various vegetables and spices is served with blanched and fresh vegetables, similar to Thai ''[[nam phrik]]'', Indonesian ''[[lalab]]'', and Malay [[Ulam (salad)|''ulam'']]. Pickled fish, called ''[[ngachin]]'', is also used in Burmese cooking.[[File:Dried fermented bean cakes.jpg|thumb|Dried fermented bean cakes called ''pè bok'' are grilled or fried in Shan cooking.]]


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Shan cuisine traditionally uses fermented beans called ''[[Thua nao|pè ngapi]]'' ({{lang|my|ပဲငါးပိ}}; {{lit|bean ''ngapi''}}), in lieu of ''ngapi'', to impart umami. Dried bean ngapi chips ({{lang|my|ပဲပုပ်}}; {{lit|spoiled beans}}) are used as condiments for various Shan dishes.
Shan cuisine traditionally uses fermented beans called ''[[Thua nao|pè ngapi]]'' ({{lang|my|ပဲငါးပိ}}; {{lit|bean ''ngapi''}}), in lieu of ''ngapi'', to impart umami. Dried bean ngapi chips ({{lang|my|ပဲပုပ်}}; {{lit|spoiled beans}}) are used as condiments for various Shan dishes.


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''[[Pon ye gyi]]'' ({{lang|my|ပုံးရည်ကြီး}}), a thick salty black paste made from fermented beans, is popular in the Bamar heartland. It is used in cooking, especially with pork, and as a salad with peanut oil, chopped onions and red chili. [[Bagan]] is an important ''pon ye gyi'' producer.
''[[Pon ye gyi]]'' ({{lang|my|ပုံးရည်ကြီး}}), a thick salty black paste made from fermented beans, is popular in the Bamar heartland. It is used in cooking, especially with pork, and as a salad with peanut oil, chopped onions and red chili. [[Bagan]] is an important ''pon ye gyi'' producer.


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Burmese cuisine also features a wide variety of pickled vegetables and fruits that are preserved in oil and spices, or in brine and rice wine. The former, called ''thanat'' (သနပ်), are similar to [[South Asian pickle]]s, including [[mango pickle]]. The latter are called ''chinbat'' (ချဉ်ဖတ်), and include pickles like [[Mohnyin tjin|''mohnyin gyin'']].
Burmese cuisine also features a wide variety of pickled vegetables and fruits that are preserved in oil and spices, or in brine and rice wine. The former, called ''thanat'' (သနပ်), are similar to [[South Asian pickle]]s, including [[mango pickle]]. The latter are called ''chinbat'' (ချဉ်ဖတ်), and include pickles like [[Mohnyin tjin|''mohnyin gyin'']].


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=== Rice ===
=== Rice ===
[[File:IMG0039 Burma Mandalay Mahaganda Yon Monastery Rice cooking (7609318972).jpg|thumb|Buddhist monks cooking rice at the [[Mahagandhayon Monastery]] in Amarapura.]]
[[File:IMG0039 Burma Mandalay Mahaganda Yon Monastery Rice cooking (7609318972).jpg|thumb|Buddhist monks cooking rice at the [[Mahagandhayon Monastery]] in Amarapura.]]


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The most common staple in Myanmar is steamed rice, called ''htamin'' ({{lang|my|ထမင်း}}). Burmese varieties of rice are typically starchier than jasmine or basmati rice. Fragrant, aromatic varieties of white rice, including ''[[paw hsan hmwe]]'' ({{lang|my|ပေါ်ဆန်းမွှေး}}), are popular. Lower-amylose varieties of [[glutinous rice]], which are called ''kauk hnyin'' ({{lang|my|ကောက်ညှင်း}}), also feature in Burmese cuisine, including a purple variety called ''ngacheik'' (ငချိပ်). Consumers in the northern highlands (e.g., [[Shan State]]) prefer stickier, lower-[[amylose]] varieties like {{transliteration|my|kauk hnyin}} and ''kauk sei'', while consumers in lower delta regions preferring higher-amylose varieties like {{transliteration|my|kauk chaw}} and {{transliteration|my|kauk kyan}}.Lower-amylose varieties of rice are commonly used in traditional Burmese snacks called ''[[mont (food)|mont]]''. While rice is traditionally eaten plain, flavored versions like [[Pe htaw bhut htamin|buttered rice]] and [[coconut rice]] are commonplace festive staples.
The most common staple in Myanmar is steamed rice, called ''htamin'' ({{lang|my|ထမင်း}}). Burmese varieties of rice are typically starchier than jasmine or basmati rice. Fragrant, aromatic varieties of white rice, including ''[[paw hsan hmwe]]'' ({{lang|my|ပေါ်ဆန်းမွှေး}}), are popular. Lower-amylose varieties of [[glutinous rice]], which are called ''kauk hnyin'' ({{lang|my|ကောက်ညှင်း}}), also feature in Burmese cuisine, including a purple variety called ''ngacheik'' (ငချိပ်). Consumers in the northern highlands (e.g., [[Shan State]]) prefer stickier, lower-[[amylose]] varieties like {{transliteration|my|kauk hnyin}} and ''kauk sei'', while consumers in lower delta regions preferring higher-amylose varieties like {{transliteration|my|kauk chaw}} and {{transliteration|my|kauk kyan}}.Lower-amylose varieties of rice are commonly used in traditional Burmese snacks called ''[[mont (food)|mont]]''. While rice is traditionally eaten plain, flavored versions like [[Pe htaw bhut htamin|buttered rice]] and [[coconut rice]] are commonplace festive staples.


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[[File:Burmese Oiled Glutinous Rice.jpg|thumb|''[[Hsi htamin]]'', glutinous rice seasoned with oil and turmeric, is a popular breakfast food.]]
[[File:Burmese Oiled Glutinous Rice.jpg|thumb|''[[Hsi htamin]]'', glutinous rice seasoned with oil and turmeric, is a popular breakfast food.]]


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* ''[[Burmese fried rice|Htamin gyaw]]'' ({{lang|my|ထမင်းကြော်}} {{IPA|my|tʰəmɪ́ɴ dʒɔ̀|}}) – fried rice with boiled peas, sometimes with meat, sausage, and eggs.
* ''[[Burmese fried rice|Htamin gyaw]]'' ({{lang|my|ထမင်းကြော်}} {{IPA|my|tʰəmɪ́ɴ dʒɔ̀|}}) – fried rice with boiled peas, sometimes with meat, sausage, and eggs.
* ''[[Rice congee|San byok]]'' ({{lang|my|ဆန်ပြုတ်}} {{IPA|my|sʰàɴbjoʊʔ|}}) – rice congee with fish, chicken or duck often fed to invalids.
* ''[[Rice congee|San byok]]'' ({{lang|my|ဆန်ပြုတ်}} {{IPA|my|sʰàɴbjoʊʔ|}}) – rice congee with fish, chicken or duck often fed to invalids.
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*[[Thingyan rice]] ({{lang|my|သင်္ကြန်ထမင်း}} {{IPA|my|ðədʒàɴ tʰəmɪ́ɴ|}}) – fully boiled rice in candle-smelt water served with pickled [[Bouea macrophylla|marian plums]]
*[[Thingyan rice]] ({{lang|my|သင်္ကြန်ထမင်း}} {{IPA|my|ðədʒàɴ tʰəmɪ́ɴ|}}) – fully boiled rice in candle-smelt water served with pickled [[Bouea macrophylla|marian plums]]


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=== Noodles ===
=== Noodles ===
[[File:Rice Noodles Drying - Hsipaw - Myanmar (Burma) (12224458643).jpg|thumb|Rice noodles sun-drying in [[Hsipaw]].]]
[[File:Rice Noodles Drying - Hsipaw - Myanmar (Burma) (12224458643).jpg|thumb|Rice noodles sun-drying in [[Hsipaw]].]]


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Burmese cuisine uses a wide variety of noodles, which are prepared in soups, salads, or other dry noodle dishes and typically eaten outside of lunch, or as a snack. Fresh, thin rice noodles called ''mont bat'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်ဖတ်}}) or ''mont di'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်တီ}}), are similar to Thai ''[[khanom chin]]'', and feature in Myanmar's national dish, [[mohinga]]. Burmese cuisine also has a category of [[rice noodles]] of varying sizes and shapes called ''nan'', including ''nangyi'' ({{lang|my|နန်းကြီး}}), thick udon-like noodles; ''nanlat'' ({{lang|my|နန်းလတ်}}), medium-sized rice noodles; ''nanthe'' ({{lang|my|နန်းသေး}}), thinner rice noodles; and ''nanbya'' ({{lang|my|နန်းပြား}}), flat rice noodles. [[Cellophane noodles]], called ''kyazan'' ({{lang|my|ကြာဆံ}}, {{Lit|lotus thread}}) and wheat-based noodles called ''khauk swe'' ({{lang|my|ခေါက်ဆွဲ}}), are often used in salads, soups, and stir-fries.
Burmese cuisine uses a wide variety of noodles, which are prepared in soups, salads, or other dry noodle dishes and typically eaten outside of lunch, or as a snack. Fresh, thin rice noodles called ''mont bat'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်ဖတ်}}) or ''mont di'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်တီ}}), are similar to Thai ''[[khanom chin]]'', and feature in Myanmar's national dish, [[mohinga]]. Burmese cuisine also has a category of [[rice noodles]] of varying sizes and shapes called ''nan'', including ''nangyi'' ({{lang|my|နန်းကြီး}}), thick udon-like noodles; ''nanlat'' ({{lang|my|နန်းလတ်}}), medium-sized rice noodles; ''nanthe'' ({{lang|my|နန်းသေး}}), thinner rice noodles; and ''nanbya'' ({{lang|my|နန်းပြား}}), flat rice noodles. [[Cellophane noodles]], called ''kyazan'' ({{lang|my|ကြာဆံ}}, {{Lit|lotus thread}}) and wheat-based noodles called ''khauk swe'' ({{lang|my|ခေါက်ဆွဲ}}), are often used in salads, soups, and stir-fries.


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[[File:IMG Shanhkaukswè.JPG|thumb|''Shan khao swè'' and ''tohpu jaw'', with ''monnyin gyin'' on the side]]
[[File:IMG Shanhkaukswè.JPG|thumb|''Shan khao swè'' and ''tohpu jaw'', with ''monnyin gyin'' on the side]]
Dry or fried noodle dishes include:
Dry or fried noodle dishes include:


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* ''[[Baik kut kyee kaik|Kat kyi kaik]]'' ({{lang|my|ကတ်ကြေးကိုက်}} {{IPA|my|kaʔtɕígaɪʔ|}}, {{lit|bitten with scissors}}) – a southern coastal dish (from the [[Dawei]] area) of flat rice noodles with a variety of seafood, land meats, raw bean sprouts, beans and fried eggs, comparable to [[Pad Thai|pad thai]]
* ''[[Baik kut kyee kaik|Kat kyi kaik]]'' ({{lang|my|ကတ်ကြေးကိုက်}} {{IPA|my|kaʔtɕígaɪʔ|}}, {{lit|bitten with scissors}}) – a southern coastal dish (from the [[Dawei]] area) of flat rice noodles with a variety of seafood, land meats, raw bean sprouts, beans and fried eggs, comparable to [[Pad Thai|pad thai]]
*''[[Meeshay]]'' ({{lang|my|မြီးရှည်}} {{IPA|my|mjíʃè|}}) – rice noodles with pork or chicken, bean sprouts, rice flour gel, rice flour fritters, dressed with [[soy sauce]], salted [[soybean]], rice vinegar, fried peanut oil, chilli oil, and garnished with crisp fried onions, crushed garlic, coriander, and pickled white [[radish]]/[[mustard greens]]
*''[[Meeshay]]'' ({{lang|my|မြီးရှည်}} {{IPA|my|mjíʃè|}}) – rice noodles with pork or chicken, bean sprouts, rice flour gel, rice flour fritters, dressed with [[soy sauce]], salted [[soybean]], rice vinegar, fried peanut oil, chilli oil, and garnished with crisp fried onions, crushed garlic, coriander, and pickled white [[radish]]/[[mustard greens]]
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* ''[[Sigyet khauk swè]]'' ({{lang|my|ဆီချက်ခေါက်ဆွဲ}} {{IPA|my|sʰìdʑɛʔ kʰaʊʔ sʰwɛ́|}}) – wheat noodles with duck or pork, fried garlic oil, [[soy sauce]] and chopped spring onions. The dish originated from with the Sino-Burmese community
* ''[[Sigyet khauk swè]]'' ({{lang|my|ဆီချက်ခေါက်ဆွဲ}} {{IPA|my|sʰìdʑɛʔ kʰaʊʔ sʰwɛ́|}}) – wheat noodles with duck or pork, fried garlic oil, [[soy sauce]] and chopped spring onions. The dish originated from with the Sino-Burmese community


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[[File:Meeshei.JPG|thumb|Mandalay ''[[meeshay]]'', served with a thin ''hingyo'' broth.]]
[[File:Meeshei.JPG|thumb|Mandalay ''[[meeshay]]'', served with a thin ''hingyo'' broth.]]
[[Noodle soup]]s include:
[[Noodle soup]]s include:


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*''[[Mohinga]]'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်ဟင်းခါး}} {{IPA|my|mo̰ʊɴhíɰ̃ɡá|}}) – the unofficial national dish, made with fresh thin rice noodles in a fish broth with onions, garlic, ginger, [[lemon grass]] and tender banana stem cores, served with boiled eggs, fried [[fishcake]] and [[Burmese fritters]]
*''[[Mohinga]]'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်ဟင်းခါး}} {{IPA|my|mo̰ʊɴhíɰ̃ɡá|}}) – the unofficial national dish, made with fresh thin rice noodles in a fish broth with onions, garlic, ginger, [[lemon grass]] and tender banana stem cores, served with boiled eggs, fried [[fishcake]] and [[Burmese fritters]]
*''[[On no khauk swe|Ohn-no khauk swè]]'' ({{lang|my|အုန်းနို့ခေါက်ဆွဲ}} {{IPA|my|ʔóʊɴno̰ kʰaʊʔsʰwɛ́|}}) – curried chicken and wheat noodles in a coconut milk broth. It is comparable to [[Malaysia]]n ''[[laksa]]'' and [[Northern Thailand|Northern Thai]] ''[[khao soi]]''
*''[[On no khauk swe|Ohn-no khauk swè]]'' ({{lang|my|အုန်းနို့ခေါက်ဆွဲ}} {{IPA|my|ʔóʊɴno̰ kʰaʊʔsʰwɛ́|}}) – curried chicken and wheat noodles in a coconut milk broth. It is comparable to [[Malaysia]]n ''[[laksa]]'' and [[Northern Thailand|Northern Thai]] ''[[khao soi]]''
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* ''[[Shan khauk swè|Shan khauk swé]]'' ({{lang|my|ရှမ်းခေါက်ဆွဲ}} {{IPA|my|ʃáɴ kʰaʊʔsʰwɛ́|}}) – rice noodles with chicken or minced pork, onions, garlic, tomatoes, chili, crushed roasted peanuts, young [[Snow pea|snowpea]] vine, served with tofu fritters, and pickled mustard greens
* ''[[Shan khauk swè|Shan khauk swé]]'' ({{lang|my|ရှမ်းခေါက်ဆွဲ}} {{IPA|my|ʃáɴ kʰaʊʔsʰwɛ́|}}) – rice noodles with chicken or minced pork, onions, garlic, tomatoes, chili, crushed roasted peanuts, young [[Snow pea|snowpea]] vine, served with tofu fritters, and pickled mustard greens


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=== Salads ===
=== Salads ===
{{Main|Burmese salads|}}
{{Main|Burmese salads|}}


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[[File:Samosa salad.jpg|thumb|Samosa salad in Mandalay]]
[[File:Samosa salad.jpg|thumb|Samosa salad in Mandalay]]


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Burmese salads ({{lang|my|အသုပ်}}; transliterated ''athoke'' or ''athouk'') are a diverse category of indigenous [[salad]]s in Burmese cuisine. Burmese salads are made of cooked and raw ingredients that are mixed by hand to combine and balance a wide-ranging array of flavors and textures. Burmese salads are eaten as standalone snacks, as [[side dish]]es paired with [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]], and as entrees.[[File:Thayet chin thouk.JPG|thumb|''Thayet chin thoke'' – fermented green mango salad with onions, green chilli, roasted peanuts, sesame and peanut oil]]
Burmese salads ({{lang|my|အသုပ်}}; transliterated ''athoke'' or ''athouk'') are a diverse category of indigenous [[salad]]s in Burmese cuisine. Burmese salads are made of cooked and raw ingredients that are mixed by hand to combine and balance a wide-ranging array of flavors and textures. Burmese salads are eaten as standalone snacks, as [[side dish]]es paired with [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]], and as entrees.[[File:Thayet chin thouk.JPG|thumb|''Thayet chin thoke'' – fermented green mango salad with onions, green chilli, roasted peanuts, sesame and peanut oil]]
* ''[[Lahpet]] thoke'' ({{lang|my|လက်ဖက်သုပ်}} {{IPA|my|ləpʰɛʔ ðoʊʔ|}}) – a salad of pickled tea leaves with fried peas, peanuts and garlic, toasted sesame, fresh garlic, tomato, green chili, crushed dried shrimps, preserved ginger and dressed with peanut oil, fish sauce and lime
* ''[[Lahpet]] thoke'' ({{lang|my|လက်ဖက်သုပ်}} {{IPA|my|ləpʰɛʔ ðoʊʔ|}}) – a salad of pickled tea leaves with fried peas, peanuts and garlic, toasted sesame, fresh garlic, tomato, green chili, crushed dried shrimps, preserved ginger and dressed with peanut oil, fish sauce and lime
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* ''Kya zan thoke'' – glass vermicelli salad with boiled prawn julienne and mashed curried duck eggs and potatoes
* ''Kya zan thoke'' – glass vermicelli salad with boiled prawn julienne and mashed curried duck eggs and potatoes


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=== Curries ===
=== Curries ===
{{Main|Burmese curry|}}
{{Main|Burmese curry|}}
[[File:Danu traditional meal.jpg|thumb|A traditional [[Danu people|Danu]]-style meal featuring a curry broth, rice disks, and a requisite plate of blanched vegetables and dip.]]
[[File:Danu traditional meal.jpg|thumb|A traditional [[Danu people|Danu]]-style meal featuring a curry broth, rice disks, and a requisite plate of blanched vegetables and dip.]]


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Burmese curry refers to a diverse array of dishes in Burmese cuisine that consist of protein or vegetables simmered or stewed in an base of aromatics. Burmese curries generally differ from other Southeast Asian [[Curry|curries]] (e.g., [[Thai curry]]) in that Burmese curries make use of dried [[spice]]s, in addition to fresh herbs and aromatics, and are often milder.The most common variety of curry is called ''sibyan'' ({{lang|my|ဆီပြန်}}; {{Literal translation|oil returns}}), which is typified by a layer of oil that separates from the gravy and meat after cooked. Pork, chicken, goat, shrimp, and fish are commonly prepared in Burmese curries.
Burmese curry refers to a diverse array of dishes in Burmese cuisine that consist of protein or vegetables simmered or stewed in an base of aromatics. Burmese curries generally differ from other Southeast Asian [[Curry|curries]] (e.g., [[Thai curry]]) in that Burmese curries make use of dried [[spice]]s, in addition to fresh herbs and aromatics, and are often milder.The most common variety of curry is called ''sibyan'' ({{lang|my|ဆီပြန်}}; {{Literal translation|oil returns}}), which is typified by a layer of oil that separates from the gravy and meat after cooked. Pork, chicken, goat, shrimp, and fish are commonly prepared in Burmese curries.


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* Pork ''sibyan'' ({{lang|my|ဝက်သားဆီပြန်}}) – classic Burmese curry with fatty cuts of pork
* Pork ''sibyan'' ({{lang|my|ဝက်သားဆီပြန်}}) – classic Burmese curry with fatty cuts of pork
* Chicken ''sibyan'' ({{lang|my|ကြက်သားဆီပြန်}}) – the classic Burmese curry, served with a thick gravy of aromatics
* Chicken ''sibyan'' ({{lang|my|ကြက်သားဆီပြန်}}) – the classic Burmese curry, served with a thick gravy of aromatics
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* Egg curry ({{lang|my|ဘဲဥချဥ်ရည်ဟင်း}}) – a sour curry made with hardboiled duck or chicken eggs, cooked in tamarind paste and mashed [[tomato]]es
* Egg curry ({{lang|my|ဘဲဥချဥ်ရည်ဟင်း}}) – a sour curry made with hardboiled duck or chicken eggs, cooked in tamarind paste and mashed [[tomato]]es


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=== Soups ===
=== Soups ===
[[File:Dunt-dalun chin-yei 1760.JPG|thumb|''Dandalun chinyay,'' a sour soup with chopped drumsticks]]
[[File:Dunt-dalun chin-yei 1760.JPG|thumb|''Dandalun chinyay,'' a sour soup with chopped drumsticks]]
In Burmese cuisine, soups typically accompany meals featuring both rice and noodles, and are paired accordingly to balance contrasting flavors. Lightly flavored soups, called {{transliteration|my|hin gyo}} ({{lang|my|ဟင်းချို}}) are served with saltier dishes, while sour soups, called {{transliteration|my|chinyay hin}} ({{lang|my|ချဉ်ရည်ဟင်း}}), are paired with rich, fatty [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]].
In Burmese cuisine, soups typically accompany meals featuring both rice and noodles, and are paired accordingly to balance contrasting flavors. Lightly flavored soups, called {{transliteration|my|hin gyo}} ({{lang|my|ဟင်းချို}}) are served with saltier dishes, while sour soups, called {{transliteration|my|chinyay hin}} ({{lang|my|ချဉ်ရည်ဟင်း}}), are paired with rich, fatty [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]].


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''Thizon chinyay'' ({{lang|my|သီးစုံချဉ်ရည်}} {{IPA|my|θízòʊɴ tʃìɴjè|}}, {{lit|sour soup of assorted vegetables}}), cooked with [[drumstick (vegetable)|drumstick]], [[Okra|lady's finger]], [[eggplant]], [[green bean]]s, [[potato]], [[onions]], [[ginger]], dried chilli, boiled eggs, dried salted fish, [[fish paste]] and [[tamarind]], is an elevated version of ''chinyay hin'', and served during festive occasions.
''Thizon chinyay'' ({{lang|my|သီးစုံချဉ်ရည်}} {{IPA|my|θízòʊɴ tʃìɴjè|}}, {{lit|sour soup of assorted vegetables}}), cooked with [[drumstick (vegetable)|drumstick]], [[Okra|lady's finger]], [[eggplant]], [[green bean]]s, [[potato]], [[onions]], [[ginger]], dried chilli, boiled eggs, dried salted fish, [[fish paste]] and [[tamarind]], is an elevated version of ''chinyay hin'', and served during festive occasions.


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=== Other grains and breads ===
=== Other grains and breads ===
[[File:Palatha, Myanmar.jpg|thumb|''Palata'' is commonly dusted with sugar as a dessert or teatime snack.]]
[[File:Palatha, Myanmar.jpg|thumb|''Palata'' is commonly dusted with sugar as a dessert or teatime snack.]]


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[[Indian bread]]s are commonly eaten for breakfast or teatime in Myanmar. ''[[Paratha|Palata]]'' ({{lang|my|ပလာတာ}}), also known as ''htattaya'' (ထပ်တစ်ရာ), a flaky fried flatbread related to Indian [[paratha]], is often eaten with curried meats or as dessert with sprinkled sugar, while ''[[Naan|nanbya]]'' ({{lang|my|နံပြား}}), a baked flatbread, is eaten with any Indian dishes. Other favorites include ''aloo [[poori]]'' ({{lang|my|အာလူးပူရီ}}), ''[[chapati]]'' (ချပါတီ), and ''[[appam]]'' (အာပုံ).
[[Indian bread]]s are commonly eaten for breakfast or teatime in Myanmar. ''[[Paratha|Palata]]'' ({{lang|my|ပလာတာ}}), also known as ''htattaya'' (ထပ်တစ်ရာ), a flaky fried flatbread related to Indian [[paratha]], is often eaten with curried meats or as dessert with sprinkled sugar, while ''[[Naan|nanbya]]'' ({{lang|my|နံပြား}}), a baked flatbread, is eaten with any Indian dishes. Other favorites include ''aloo [[poori]]'' ({{lang|my|အာလူးပူရီ}}), ''[[chapati]]'' (ချပါတီ), and ''[[appam]]'' (အာပုံ).


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[[File:Cha-om omelette 1532 (2).JPG|thumb|Burmese-style omelette fried with [[Senegalia pennata|acacia leaves]]]]
[[File:Cha-om omelette 1532 (2).JPG|thumb|Burmese-style omelette fried with [[Senegalia pennata|acacia leaves]]]]


<!--T:63-->
Other dishes include:
Other dishes include:


<!--T:64-->
* [[Burmese tofu]] ({{lang|my|ရှမ်းတို့ဟူး}} {{IPA|my|ʃáɴ tòhú|}}) – a [[tofu]] of Shan origin made from [[Gram flour|chickpea flour]], eaten as fritters, in a salad, or in porridge forms
* [[Burmese tofu]] ({{lang|my|ရှမ်းတို့ဟူး}} {{IPA|my|ʃáɴ tòhú|}}) – a [[tofu]] of Shan origin made from [[Gram flour|chickpea flour]], eaten as fritters, in a salad, or in porridge forms
*''A sein kyaw'' ({{lang|my|အစိမ်းကြော်}} {{IPA|my|ʔəséɪɴdʒɔ̀|}}) – cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, green beans, baby corn, corn flour or tapioca starch, tomatoes, squid sauce
*''A sein kyaw'' ({{lang|my|အစိမ်းကြော်}} {{IPA|my|ʔəséɪɴdʒɔ̀|}}) – cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, green beans, baby corn, corn flour or tapioca starch, tomatoes, squid sauce
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*''Wet tha chin'' ({{lang|my|ဝက်သားချဉ်}} {{IPA|my|wɛʔ θə dʑɪ̀ɴ|}}) – Shan-style preserved minced pork in rice
*''Wet tha chin'' ({{lang|my|ဝက်သားချဉ်}} {{IPA|my|wɛʔ θə dʑɪ̀ɴ|}}) – Shan-style preserved minced pork in rice


<!--T:65-->
=== Snacks ===
=== Snacks ===
{{Main|Mont (food)|Burmese fritters}}
{{Main|Mont (food)|Burmese fritters}}
[[File:Ponnagyun (6212423604).jpg|thumb|A street hawker in [[Ponnagyun]] selling an assortment of fritters and ''mont'' to passersby.]]
[[File:Ponnagyun (6212423604).jpg|thumb|A street hawker in [[Ponnagyun]] selling an assortment of fritters and ''mont'' to passersby.]]


<!--T:66-->
Burmese cuisine has a wide variety of traditional snacks called ''[[Mont (food)|mont]]'', ranging from sweet desserts to savory food items that are steamed, baked, fried, deep-fried, or boiled. Traditional [[Burmese fritters]], consisting of vegetables or seafood that have been battered and deep-fried, are also eaten as snacks or as toppings.
Burmese cuisine has a wide variety of traditional snacks called ''[[Mont (food)|mont]]'', ranging from sweet desserts to savory food items that are steamed, baked, fried, deep-fried, or boiled. Traditional [[Burmese fritters]], consisting of vegetables or seafood that have been battered and deep-fried, are also eaten as snacks or as toppings.


<!--T:67-->
Savory snacks include:
Savory snacks include:


<!--T:68-->
* ''[[Wonton|Hpet htok]]'' ({{lit|leaf wrap}}, {{lang|my|ဖက်ထုပ်}} {{IPA|my|pʰɛʔtʰoʊʔ|}}) – meat, pastry paper, ginger, garlic, pepper powder, and salt. Usually served with soup or noodles.
* ''[[Wonton|Hpet htok]]'' ({{lit|leaf wrap}}, {{lang|my|ဖက်ထုပ်}} {{IPA|my|pʰɛʔtʰoʊʔ|}}) – meat, pastry paper, ginger, garlic, pepper powder, and salt. Usually served with soup or noodles.
* ''[[Samosa|Samusa]]'' ({{lang|my|စမူဆာ}} {{IPA|my|səmùzà|}}) – Burmese-style [[samosa]] with mutton and onions served with fresh mint, green chilli, onions and lime
* ''[[Samosa|Samusa]]'' ({{lang|my|စမူဆာ}} {{IPA|my|səmùzà|}}) – Burmese-style [[samosa]] with mutton and onions served with fresh mint, green chilli, onions and lime
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*''[[Htamane]]'' ({{lang|my|ထမနဲ}} {{IPA|my|tʰəmənɛ́|}}) – dessert made from glutinous rice, shredded coconuts and peanuts
*''[[Htamane]]'' ({{lang|my|ထမနဲ}} {{IPA|my|tʰəmənɛ́|}}) – dessert made from glutinous rice, shredded coconuts and peanuts


<!--T:69-->
Sweet snacks include:
Sweet snacks include:


<!--T:70-->
*''[[Cendol|Mont let hsaung]]'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း}} {{IPA|my|mo̰ʊɴlɛʔsʰáʊɴ|}}) – tapioca or rice noodles, glutinous rice, grated coconut and toasted sesame with [[jaggery]] syrup in coconut milk
*''[[Cendol|Mont let hsaung]]'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း}} {{IPA|my|mo̰ʊɴlɛʔsʰáʊɴ|}}) – tapioca or rice noodles, glutinous rice, grated coconut and toasted sesame with [[jaggery]] syrup in coconut milk
* ''[[Sanwin makin]]'' ({{lang|my|ဆနွင်းမကင်း}} {{IPA|my|sʰà.nwɪ́ɴ məgɪ́ɴ|}}) – [[semolina]] cake with raisins, walnuts and [[poppy seed]]s
* ''[[Sanwin makin]]'' ({{lang|my|ဆနွင်းမကင်း}} {{IPA|my|sʰà.nwɪ́ɴ məgɪ́ɴ|}}) – [[semolina]] cake with raisins, walnuts and [[poppy seed]]s
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* ''Saw hlaing mont'' ({{lang|my|စောလှိုင်မုန့်}}) – a Rakhine-style baked sweet, made from millet, raisins, coconut and butter
* ''Saw hlaing mont'' ({{lang|my|စောလှိုင်မုန့်}}) – a Rakhine-style baked sweet, made from millet, raisins, coconut and butter


<!--T:71-->
===Fruits and fruit preserves===
===Fruits and fruit preserves===
[[File:2016 Rangun, Ulica Old Yay Tar Shay, Stoiska z jedzeniem (04).jpg|thumb|A street-side fruit stall in Yangon.]]
[[File:2016 Rangun, Ulica Old Yay Tar Shay, Stoiska z jedzeniem (04).jpg|thumb|A street-side fruit stall in Yangon.]]
Myanmar has a wide range of fruits, mostly of tropical origin. Fruit is commonly eaten as a snack or dessert. While most fruits are eaten fresh, a few, including [[Archidendron pauciflorum|jengkol]], are boiled, roasted or otherwise cooked. Popular fruits include [[banana]], [[mango]], [[water melon|watermelon]], [[papaya]], [[jujube]], avocado, [[pomelo]], and [[guava]]. Others include [[Bouea macrophylla|marian plum]], [[mangosteen]], [[sugar-apple]], [[rambutan]], [[durian]], [[jackfruit]], [[lychee]], and [[pomegranate]]. Some fruits, including green mangoes, plums, and guavas, are traditionally eaten before they ripen, often mixed with chili powder and salt.
Myanmar has a wide range of fruits, mostly of tropical origin. Fruit is commonly eaten as a snack or dessert. While most fruits are eaten fresh, a few, including [[Archidendron pauciflorum|jengkol]], are boiled, roasted or otherwise cooked. Popular fruits include [[banana]], [[mango]], [[water melon|watermelon]], [[papaya]], [[jujube]], avocado, [[pomelo]], and [[guava]]. Others include [[Bouea macrophylla|marian plum]], [[mangosteen]], [[sugar-apple]], [[rambutan]], [[durian]], [[jackfruit]], [[lychee]], and [[pomegranate]]. Some fruits, including green mangoes, plums, and guavas, are traditionally eaten before they ripen, often mixed with chili powder and salt.


<!--T:72-->
Burmese fruit preserves, called ''yo'' ({{lang|my|ယို}}), are also commonly eaten as standalone snacks. Common ones include fruit preserves made from [[Common fig|fig]], [[jujube]], [[Bouea macrophylla|marian plum]], citrus, mango, pineapple, and [[durian]].
Burmese fruit preserves, called ''yo'' ({{lang|my|ယို}}), are also commonly eaten as standalone snacks. Common ones include fruit preserves made from [[Common fig|fig]], [[jujube]], [[Bouea macrophylla|marian plum]], citrus, mango, pineapple, and [[durian]].


<!--T:73-->
300 cultivars of mango are grown in Myanmar, including ''seintalon'' ({{lang|my|စိန်တစ်လုံး}}, {{Lit|one diamond}}), ''Ma Chit Su'' ({{lang|my|မချစ်စု}}), and ''mya kyauk'' ({{lang|my|မြကျောက်}}, {{Lit|emerald stone}}). 13 species of banana are locally cultivated in Myanmar, including the following cultivars:
300 cultivars of mango are grown in Myanmar, including ''seintalon'' ({{lang|my|စိန်တစ်လုံး}}, {{Lit|one diamond}}), ''Ma Chit Su'' ({{lang|my|မချစ်စု}}), and ''mya kyauk'' ({{lang|my|မြကျောက်}}, {{Lit|emerald stone}}). 13 species of banana are locally cultivated in Myanmar, including the following cultivars:


<!--T:74-->
* [[Red banana|red]] - locally called ''shweni'' ({{lang|my|ရွှေနီ}}, {{Lit|golden red}})
* [[Red banana|red]] - locally called ''shweni'' ({{lang|my|ရွှေနီ}}, {{Lit|golden red}})
* [[Dwarf Cavendish banana|Dwarf Cavendish]] - locally called ''htawbat'' ({{lang|my|သီးမွှေး}}, {{Lit|fragrant fruit}})
* [[Dwarf Cavendish banana|Dwarf Cavendish]] - locally called ''htawbat'' ({{lang|my|သီးမွှေး}}, {{Lit|fragrant fruit}})
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* [[Latundan banana|Latundan]] - locally called ''htawbat'' ({{lang|my|ထောပတ်}}, {{Lit|butter}})
* [[Latundan banana|Latundan]] - locally called ''htawbat'' ({{lang|my|ထောပတ်}}, {{Lit|butter}})


<!--T:75-->
== Beverages ==
== Beverages ==
[[File:Estado Shan, varios 10.jpg|thumb|Clay pots containing drinking water are commonly seen throughout Myanmar, left for travellers and passersby to rehydrate.]]
[[File:Estado Shan, varios 10.jpg|thumb|Clay pots containing drinking water are commonly seen throughout Myanmar, left for travellers and passersby to rehydrate.]]
Tea is the national drink of Myanmar, reflecting the influence of Buddhism and its views on [[Temperance (virtue)|temperance]]. Tea is central to Burmese dining culture; complimentary green tea is customarily served to diners at restaurants and teashops alike. Various liquid concoctions made from fruits and [[coconut milk]], including [[sugarcane juice]], and ''[[Cendol|mont let hsaung]]'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း}}) are also popular. Indigenous fermented drinks like [[palm wine]] are also found across the country. During a traditional Burmese meal, drinks are not often served; instead, the usual liquid refreshment is a light broth or [[consommé]] served from a [[communal bowl]].
Tea is the national drink of Myanmar, reflecting the influence of Buddhism and its views on [[Temperance (virtue)|temperance]]. Tea is central to Burmese dining culture; complimentary green tea is customarily served to diners at restaurants and teashops alike. Various liquid concoctions made from fruits and [[coconut milk]], including [[sugarcane juice]], and ''[[Cendol|mont let hsaung]]'' ({{lang|my|မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း}}) are also popular. Indigenous fermented drinks like [[palm wine]] are also found across the country. During a traditional Burmese meal, drinks are not often served; instead, the usual liquid refreshment is a light broth or [[consommé]] served from a [[communal bowl]].


<!--T:76-->
=== Burmese tea ===
=== Burmese tea ===
[[File:Myanmar Tea House Food.jpg|thumb|Snacks served at a Burmese tea house alongside [[Burmese milk tea]].]]
[[File:Myanmar Tea House Food.jpg|thumb|Snacks served at a Burmese tea house alongside [[Burmese milk tea]].]]
{{Main|Laphet|Burmese milk tea}}
{{Main|Laphet|Burmese milk tea}}


<!--T:77-->
Plain [[green tea]], ''yay nway gyan'' ({{lang|my|ရေနွေးကြမ်း}}, {{Lit|crude tea water}}), is a popular form of tea drunk in Myanmar. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated in [[Shan State]] and [[Kachin State]]. [[Milk tea]], called ''laphet yay cho'' (လက်ဖက်ရည်ချို), made with strongly brewed black tea leaves, and sweetened with a customized ratio of [[condensed milk]] and [[evaporated milk]], is also popular.
Plain [[green tea]], ''yay nway gyan'' ({{lang|my|ရေနွေးကြမ်း}}, {{Lit|crude tea water}}), is a popular form of tea drunk in Myanmar. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated in [[Shan State]] and [[Kachin State]]. [[Milk tea]], called ''laphet yay cho'' (လက်ဖက်ရည်ချို), made with strongly brewed black tea leaves, and sweetened with a customized ratio of [[condensed milk]] and [[evaporated milk]], is also popular.


<!--T:78-->
=== Alcohol ===
=== Alcohol ===
{{See also|Beer in Myanmar}}
{{See also|Beer in Myanmar}}
[[File:Shweyin-aye.JPG|thumb|''[[Shwe yin aye]]'' is a popular and refreshing dessert]]
[[File:Shweyin-aye.JPG|thumb|''[[Shwe yin aye]]'' is a popular and refreshing dessert]]


<!--T:79-->
[[Palm wine]], called ''htan yay'' ({{lang|my|ထန်းရည်}}), made from the fermented sap of the [[toddy palm]], is traditionally consumed in rural parts of [[Upper Myanmar]] Ethnic communities, including the [[Kachin people|Kachin]] and [[Shan people|Shan]], also brew local [[moonshine]]s. Several ethnic minorities traditionally brew alcoholic beverages using rice or glutinous rice called {{Interlanguage link|khaung|lt=|my|ခေါင်ရည်|WD=}} ({{lang|my|ခေါင်ရည်}}). The ''khaung'' of the [[Chin people]]s is brewed using millet seeds. Locally brewed beers include Irrawaddy, Mandalay, Myanmar, and Tiger.
[[Palm wine]], called ''htan yay'' ({{lang|my|ထန်းရည်}}), made from the fermented sap of the [[toddy palm]], is traditionally consumed in rural parts of [[Upper Myanmar]] Ethnic communities, including the [[Kachin people|Kachin]] and [[Shan people|Shan]], also brew local [[moonshine]]s. Several ethnic minorities traditionally brew alcoholic beverages using rice or glutinous rice called {{Interlanguage link|khaung|lt=|my|ခေါင်ရည်|WD=}} ({{lang|my|ခေါင်ရည်}}). The ''khaung'' of the [[Chin people]]s is brewed using millet seeds. Locally brewed beers include Irrawaddy, Mandalay, Myanmar, and Tiger.


== Food establishments ==
== Food establishments == <!--T:80-->


<!--T:81-->
=== Restaurants ===
=== Restaurants ===
Dine-in restaurants that serve steamed rice with traditional Burmese curries and dishes are called ''htamin hsaing'' ({{lang|my|ထမင်းဆိုင်}}; {{Literal translation|rice shop}}). At traditional curry shops, soup is typically served complimentary, alongside pickled and raw vegetables, chutneys and various seasonings.
Dine-in restaurants that serve steamed rice with traditional Burmese curries and dishes are called ''htamin hsaing'' ({{lang|my|ထမင်းဆိုင်}}; {{Literal translation|rice shop}}). At traditional curry shops, soup is typically served complimentary, alongside pickled and raw vegetables, chutneys and various seasonings.


<!--T:82-->
=== Tea shops ===
=== Tea shops ===
[[File:Outdoor café, Yangon, Myanmar.jpg|thumb|An outdoor café in Yangon]]During British rule in Burma, [[Burmese Indians]] introduced [[Teahouse|tea shops]] to the country, first known as ''kaka hsaing'', which later evolved into teashops called ''laphet yay hsaing'' ({{lang|my|လက်ဖက်ရည်ဆိုင်}}) or ''kaphi'' (ကဖီး), the latter word from French ''café.'' Burmese tea shop culture emerged from a combination of British, Indian, and Chinese influences throughout the colonial period. Teashops are prevalent across the country, forming an important part of communal life. Typically open throughout the day, some Burmese tea shops cater to locals, long distance drivers and travellers alike. The Burmese typically gather in tea shops to drink milk tea served with an extensive array of snacks and meals.
[[File:Outdoor café, Yangon, Myanmar.jpg|thumb|An outdoor café in Yangon]]During British rule in Burma, [[Burmese Indians]] introduced [[Teahouse|tea shops]] to the country, first known as ''kaka hsaing'', which later evolved into teashops called ''laphet yay hsaing'' ({{lang|my|လက်ဖက်ရည်ဆိုင်}}) or ''kaphi'' (ကဖီး), the latter word from French ''café.'' Burmese tea shop culture emerged from a combination of British, Indian, and Chinese influences throughout the colonial period. Teashops are prevalent across the country, forming an important part of communal life. Typically open throughout the day, some Burmese tea shops cater to locals, long distance drivers and travellers alike. The Burmese typically gather in tea shops to drink milk tea served with an extensive array of snacks and meals.


<!--T:83-->
=== Street food ===
=== Street food ===
[[File:Street food (5089664128).jpg|thumb|A street hawker selling [[Burmese pork offal skewers]].]]Street food stalls and hawkers are a feature of the Burmese urban landscape, especially in major cities like [[Yangon]]. [[Burmese salads]], [[Mont (food)|snacks]], and [[Burmese fritters|fritters]] are especially popular street foods. In recent years, some major cities have clamped down on street food vendors. In 2016, Yangon banned the city's 6,000 street vendors from selling food on major thoroughfares, and relocated them to formal night markets set up by the city.
[[File:Street food (5089664128).jpg|thumb|A street hawker selling [[Burmese pork offal skewers]].]]Street food stalls and hawkers are a feature of the Burmese urban landscape, especially in major cities like [[Yangon]]. [[Burmese salads]], [[Mont (food)|snacks]], and [[Burmese fritters|fritters]] are especially popular street foods. In recent years, some major cities have clamped down on street food vendors. In 2016, Yangon banned the city's 6,000 street vendors from selling food on major thoroughfares, and relocated them to formal night markets set up by the city.


<!--T:84-->
[[Night market]]s, called ''nya zay'' ({{lang|my|ညဈေး}}), are a feature of many Burmese towns and cities. Colonial observers as early as 1878 noted Burmese street hawkers selling delicacies, such as fruits, cakes, and laphet during "night bazaars." The streets surrounding major daytime markets, such as [[Zegyo Market]] in Mandalay, typically double as makeshift night markets during the evenings.
[[Night market]]s, called ''nya zay'' ({{lang|my|ညဈေး}}), are a feature of many Burmese towns and cities. Colonial observers as early as 1878 noted Burmese street hawkers selling delicacies, such as fruits, cakes, and laphet during "night bazaars." The streets surrounding major daytime markets, such as [[Zegyo Market]] in Mandalay, typically double as makeshift night markets during the evenings.


<!--T:85-->
== See also ==
== See also ==
{{Contains special characters|Burmese}}
{{Contains special characters|Burmese}}
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* {{portal-inline|Myanmar}}
* {{portal-inline|Myanmar}}


<!--T:86-->
==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 27 February 2014. [http://www.oilseedcrops.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Myanmar-Business-Today-Feb-27-March-5-2014-Edition-A-Roadmap-to-Building-Myanmar-into-the-Food-Basket-of-Asia_David-DuByne-.pdf A Roadmap to Building Myanmar into the Food Basket of Asia], by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh
* Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 27 February 2014. [http://www.oilseedcrops.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Myanmar-Business-Today-Feb-27-March-5-2014-Edition-A-Roadmap-to-Building-Myanmar-into-the-Food-Basket-of-Asia_David-DuByne-.pdf A Roadmap to Building Myanmar into the Food Basket of Asia], by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh


<!--T:87-->
==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons category|Cuisine of Myanmar}}
{{Commons category|Cuisine of Myanmar}}
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* [[Mi Mi Khaing]], ''Cook and Entertain the Burmese Way''. Rangoon, 1975
* [[Mi Mi Khaing]], ''Cook and Entertain the Burmese Way''. Rangoon, 1975


<!--T:88-->
{{Burmese cuisine}}
{{Burmese cuisine}}
{{Burma (Myanmar) topics}}
{{Burma (Myanmar) topics}}
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{{cuisine}}
{{cuisine}}


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[[Category:Burmese cuisine| ]]
[[Category:Burmese cuisine| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Myanmar|Cuisine]]
[[Category:Culture of Myanmar|Cuisine]]

Latest revision as of 21:59, 26 June 2025

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This article contains . Without proper [[|rendering support]], you may see instead of Burmese script.

Burmese cuisine encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions of Myanmar, which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighboring countries at the confluence of Southeast Asia, East Asia, and South Asia, such as modern-day nations of Thailand, China, and India, respectively.

Laphet, served in a traditional lacquer tray called laphet ok.

Burmese cuisine is typified by a wide-ranging array of dishes, including traditional Burmese curries and stews, Burmese salads, accompanied by soups and a medley of vegetables that are traditionally eaten with white rice. Burmese curries are generally distinguished from other Southeast Asian curries in the former's prominent use of an aromatic trio of garlic, shallots, and ginger (in common with South Asian curries), and the general lack of coconut milk.

Burmese cuisine also features Indian breads as well as noodles, which are fried or prepared in salads and noodle soups, chief among them mohinga. Street food and snack culture has also nurtured the profuse variety of traditional Burmese fritters and modern savory and sweet snacks labeled under the umbrella of mont.

The contrasting flavor profile of Burmese cuisine is broadly captured in the phrase chin ngan sat (ချဉ်ငန်စပ် ), which literally means "sour, salty, and spicy." A popular Burmese rhyme — "of all the fruit, the mango's the best; of all the meat, the pork's the best; and of all the vegetables, lahpet's (tea leaves are) the best" — sums up the traditional favourites.

History

A traditional Burmese painting depicts the Royal Ploughing Ceremony, during which the monarch ceremonially ploughs a rice field outside the royal palace, to mark the traditional start of the rice-growing season.

Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia of rice cultivation, which first emerged in the country's Chindwin, Ayeyarwady, and Thanlwin river valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE. By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished in the region, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants.

In addition to rice, tea originated in the borderlands separating Myanmar from China, precipitating a longstanding tradition of tea consumption and the development of pickled tea known as laphet, which continues to play a pivotal role in Burmese ritual culture. This longstanding history is reflected in the Burmese language, which is among the few world languages whose word for "tea" is not etymologically traced back to the Chinese word for "tea" (see etymology of tea).

Agrarian settlements were settled by ancestors of Myanmar's modern-day ethnolinguistic groups. From these settlements emerged a succession of Burmese, Mon, Shan, Rakhine-speaking kingdoms and tributary states that now make up contemporary Myanmar. Paddy rice cultivation remains synonymous with the predominantly Buddhist Bamar, Mon, Shan, and Rakhine peoples who inhabit the country's fertile lowlands and plateaus.

Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The Columbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including tomatoes, chili peppers, peanuts, and potatoes. A series of Burmese–Siamese wars between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, including khanon dok, shwe yin aye, mont let hsaung, and Yodaya mont di.

Buddhist monks in Mandalay receive food alms from a htamanè hawker during their daily alms round (ဆွမ်းလောင်းလှည့်).

While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms (dāna), and communal feasts called satuditha and ahlu pwe (အလှူပွဲ). One of the few remaining pre-colonial cookbooks is the Sadawhset Kyan (စားတော်ဆက်ကျမ်း, lit. 'Treatise on Royal Foods'), written on a palm leaf manuscript in 1866 during the Konbaung dynasty. By the Konbaung dynasty (16th to 19th centuries), elaborate preparations of food played a central role in key court ceremonies (e.g., naming ceremonies, wedding ceremonies, etc.), including as ritual offerings to Hindu and indigenous deities, and as celebratory meals for attendees. By the Konbaung period, 126 distinct varieties of rice were cultivated in the country.

British rule in Burma between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment of Burmese Indian and Sino-Burmese communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine. These range from Indian breads such as naan and paratha to Chinese stir frying techniques and ingredients like tofu and soy sauce.

Etiquette and customs

Dining

A traditional Burmese meal includes a bowl of soup, rice, several meat curries, and ngapi yay (a dip or dipping sauce) with tozaya (vegetables for dipping).

Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table or daunglan, while sitting on a bamboo mat. Dishes are simultaneously served and shared. A traditional meal includes steamed white rice as the main dish accompanied by Burmese curries, a light soup or consommé, and other side dishes, including fried vegetables, Burmese fritters, and ngapi yay gyo (ငါးပိရည်ကျို), a plate of fresh and blanched vegetables served with pickled fish dip. The meal is then finished with a piece of palm sugar or laphet (fermented tea leaves).

Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known as u cha (ဦးချ, lit. 'first serve').

The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths. Chopsticks and Chinese-style spoons are used for noodle dishes, although noodle salads are more likely to be eaten with just a spoon. Western-style utensils, especially forks and knives, have gained currency in recent years.

In traditional Burmese eateries, green tea and numerous side dishes are served complimentary alongside the main dishes and rice.

Religious practices

The country's diverse religious makeup influences its cuisine, as Buddhists and Hindus traditionally avoid beef and Muslims pork. Beef is considered taboo by devout Buddhists and farmers because the cow is highly regarded as a beast of burden. Vegetarianism is commonly practiced by Buddhists during the three-month Vassa (ဝါတွင်း) between July and October, as well as during Uposatha days, reflected in the Burmese word for "vegetarian," thet that lut (သက်သတ်လွတ်, lit. 'free of killing'). During this time, devout Buddhists observe eight or more precepts, including fasting rules that restrict food intake to two daily meals (i.e., breakfast and lunch) taken before noon.

Beef taboo

The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals. Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power. Few people eat beef, and there is a general dislike of beef (especially among the Bamar and Burmese Chinese), although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like the Kachin. Buddhists, when giving up meat during the Buddhist (Vassa) or Uposatha days, will forego beef first. Butchers tend to be Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine of ahimsa (no harm).

During the country's last dynasty, the Konbaung dynasty, habitual consumption of beef was punishable by public flogging. In 1885, Ledi Sayadaw, a prominent Buddhist monk wrote the Nwa-myitta-sa (နွားမေတ္တာစာ), a poetic prose letter which argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound. He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance.

On 29 August 1961, the Burmese Parliament passed the State Religion Promotion Act of 1961, which explicitly banned the slaughtering of cattle nationwide (beef became known as todo tha (တိုးတိုးသား); lit. 'hush hush meat'). Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licences to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, after Ne Win led a coup d'état and declared martial law in the country.

Food theories

In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating (အပူစာ, apu za) or cooling (အအေးစာ, a-aye za), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to the Chinese classification of food. Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish.

The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especially pregnancy. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili, due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hairs.

Cooking techniques

Beans and pulses are commonly used in Burmese cuisine.

Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance. Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques. Burmese curries use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger.

Regional cuisines

Htamin jin, 'fermented' rice kneaded with fish and/or potato with twice-fried Shan tofu, is a popular local dish at Inle Lake.

Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions of Upper Myanmar, which is inland and landlocked; and Lower Myanmar, which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and the Andaman Sea. Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated with Rakhine cuisine. Southern Myanmar, particularly the area around Mawlamyaing, is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food."

Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, including Yangon and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products like fish sauce and ngapi (fermented seafood). The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland (Mandalay, Magway, and Sagaing Regions), Shan State, and Kachin States, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans. The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs.

Fusion Chettiar (ချစ်တီးကုလား) cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities.

Dishes and ingredients

Main articles: List of Burmese dishes and List of Ingredients in Burmese cuisine

Burmese cuisine incorporates numerous local ingredients that are less frequently used in other Southeast Asian cuisines, among them sour roselle leaves, astringent pennywort leaves, goat, mutton, and dried beans and lentils.

Because a standardised system of romanisation for spoken Burmese does not exist, pronunciations of the following dishes in modern standard Burmese approximated using IPA are provided (see IPA/Burmese for details).

Preserved foods

Main articles: Ngapi and Lahpet
A plate of ngapi yay gyo is surrounded by an assortment of traditional Burmese side dishes.

Myanmar is one of very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten as lahpet, pickled tea served with various accompaniments. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated by the Palaung people. Pickled tea leaves continue to play an important role in Burmese culture today. Ngapi (ငါးပိ), a fermented paste made from salted fish or shrimp, is considered the cornerstone of any Burmese traditional meal. It is used to season many soups, salads, curries and dishes, and condiments, imparting a rich umami flavor. The ngapi of Rakhine State contains no or little salt, and uses marine fish. Meanwhile, ngapi made with freshwater fish is common in Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi regions. Ngapi yay (ငါးပိရည်) is an essential part of Karen and Bamar cuisine, in which a sauce dip of ngapi cooked in various vegetables and spices is served with blanched and fresh vegetables, similar to Thai nam phrik, Indonesian lalab, and Malay ulam. Pickled fish, called ngachin, is also used in Burmese cooking.

Dried fermented bean cakes called pè bok are grilled or fried in Shan cooking.

Shan cuisine traditionally uses fermented beans called pè ngapi (ပဲငါးပိ; lit. 'bean ngapi'), in lieu of ngapi, to impart umami. Dried bean ngapi chips (ပဲပုပ်; lit. 'spoiled beans') are used as condiments for various Shan dishes.

Pon ye gyi (ပုံးရည်ကြီး), a thick salty black paste made from fermented beans, is popular in the Bamar heartland. It is used in cooking, especially with pork, and as a salad with peanut oil, chopped onions and red chili. Bagan is an important pon ye gyi producer.

Burmese cuisine also features a wide variety of pickled vegetables and fruits that are preserved in oil and spices, or in brine and rice wine. The former, called thanat (သနပ်), are similar to South Asian pickles, including mango pickle. The latter are called chinbat (ချဉ်ဖတ်), and include pickles like mohnyin gyin.

Rice

Buddhist monks cooking rice at the Mahagandhayon Monastery in Amarapura.

The most common staple in Myanmar is steamed rice, called htamin (ထမင်း). Burmese varieties of rice are typically starchier than jasmine or basmati rice. Fragrant, aromatic varieties of white rice, including paw hsan hmwe (ပေါ်ဆန်းမွှေး), are popular. Lower-amylose varieties of glutinous rice, which are called kauk hnyin (ကောက်ညှင်း), also feature in Burmese cuisine, including a purple variety called ngacheik (ငချိပ်). Consumers in the northern highlands (e.g., Shan State) prefer stickier, lower-amylose varieties like kauk hnyin and kauk sei, while consumers in lower delta regions preferring higher-amylose varieties like kauk chaw and kauk kyan.Lower-amylose varieties of rice are commonly used in traditional Burmese snacks called mont. While rice is traditionally eaten plain, flavored versions like buttered rice and coconut rice are commonplace festive staples.

Hsi htamin, glutinous rice seasoned with oil and turmeric, is a popular breakfast food.
  • Htamin gyaw (ထမင်းကြော် my) – fried rice with boiled peas, sometimes with meat, sausage, and eggs.
  • San byok (ဆန်ပြုတ် my) – rice congee with fish, chicken or duck often fed to invalids.
  • Danbauk (ဒံပေါက် my, from Persian dum pukht) – Burmese-style biryani with either chicken or mutton served with mango pickle, a fresh salad of sliced onions, julienned cabbage, sliced cucumbers, fermented limes and lemons, fried dried chilies, and soup
  • Htamin jin (ထမင်းချဉ်‌ my) – a rice, tomato and potato or fish salad kneaded into round balls dressed and garnished with crisp fried onion in oil, tamarind sauce, coriander and spring onions often with garlic, Chinese chive roots, fried whole dried chili, grilled dried fermented bean cakes (pé bok) and fried dried tofu (tohu gyauk kyaw) on the side
  • Thingyan rice (သင်္ကြန်ထမင်း my) – fully boiled rice in candle-smelt water served with pickled marian plums

Noodles

Rice noodles sun-drying in Hsipaw.

Burmese cuisine uses a wide variety of noodles, which are prepared in soups, salads, or other dry noodle dishes and typically eaten outside of lunch, or as a snack. Fresh, thin rice noodles called mont bat (မုန့်ဖတ်) or mont di (မုန့်တီ), are similar to Thai khanom chin, and feature in Myanmar's national dish, mohinga. Burmese cuisine also has a category of rice noodles of varying sizes and shapes called nan, including nangyi (နန်းကြီး), thick udon-like noodles; nanlat (နန်းလတ်), medium-sized rice noodles; nanthe (နန်းသေး), thinner rice noodles; and nanbya (နန်းပြား), flat rice noodles. Cellophane noodles, called kyazan (ကြာဆံ, lit. 'lotus thread') and wheat-based noodles called khauk swe (ခေါက်ဆွဲ), are often used in salads, soups, and stir-fries.

Shan khao swè and tohpu jaw, with monnyin gyin on the side

Dry or fried noodle dishes include:

  • Kat kyi kaik (ကတ်ကြေးကိုက် my, lit. 'bitten with scissors') – a southern coastal dish (from the Dawei area) of flat rice noodles with a variety of seafood, land meats, raw bean sprouts, beans and fried eggs, comparable to pad thai
  • Meeshay (မြီးရှည် my) – rice noodles with pork or chicken, bean sprouts, rice flour gel, rice flour fritters, dressed with soy sauce, salted soybean, rice vinegar, fried peanut oil, chilli oil, and garnished with crisp fried onions, crushed garlic, coriander, and pickled white radish/mustard greens
  • Mont di – an extremely popular and economical fast-food dish where rice vermicelli are either eaten with some condiments and soup prepared from ngapi, or as a salad with powdered fish and some condiments.
  • Panthay khao swè (ပန်းသေးခေါက်ဆွဲ my) – halal egg noodles with a spiced chicken curry. The dish is associated with Panthay community, a group of Burmese Chinese Muslims.
  • Sigyet khauk swè (ဆီချက်ခေါက်ဆွဲ my) – wheat noodles with duck or pork, fried garlic oil, soy sauce and chopped spring onions. The dish originated from with the Sino-Burmese community
Mandalay meeshay, served with a thin hingyo broth.

Noodle soups include:

  • Mohinga (မုန့်ဟင်းခါး my) – the unofficial national dish, made with fresh thin rice noodles in a fish broth with onions, garlic, ginger, lemon grass and tender banana stem cores, served with boiled eggs, fried fishcake and Burmese fritters
  • Ohn-no khauk swè (အုန်းနို့ခေါက်ဆွဲ my) – curried chicken and wheat noodles in a coconut milk broth. It is comparable to Malaysian laksa and Northern Thai khao soi
  • Kyay oh (ကြေးအိုး my) – rice noodles in a broth of pork offal and egg, traditionally served in copper pot
  • Kawyei khao swè (ကော်ရည်ခေါက်ဆွဲ my) – noodles and duck (or pork) curried with five-spice powder in broth with eggs, comparable to Singaporean/Malaysian lor mee
  • Mi swan (မြူစွမ် my) – thin wheat noodles, known as misua in Singapore and Malaysia. It is a popular option for invalids, usually with chicken broth.
  • Shan khauk swé (ရှမ်းခေါက်ဆွဲ my) – rice noodles with chicken or minced pork, onions, garlic, tomatoes, chili, crushed roasted peanuts, young snowpea vine, served with tofu fritters, and pickled mustard greens

Salads

Main article: Burmese salads
Samosa salad in Mandalay

Burmese salads (အသုပ်; transliterated athoke or athouk) are a diverse category of indigenous salads in Burmese cuisine. Burmese salads are made of cooked and raw ingredients that are mixed by hand to combine and balance a wide-ranging array of flavors and textures. Burmese salads are eaten as standalone snacks, as side dishes paired with Burmese curries, and as entrees.

Thayet chin thoke – fermented green mango salad with onions, green chilli, roasted peanuts, sesame and peanut oil
  • Lahpet thoke (လက်ဖက်သုပ် my) – a salad of pickled tea leaves with fried peas, peanuts and garlic, toasted sesame, fresh garlic, tomato, green chili, crushed dried shrimps, preserved ginger and dressed with peanut oil, fish sauce and lime
  • Gyin thoke (ချင်းသုပ်‌ my) – a salad of pickled ginger with sesame seeds
  • Khauk swè thoke (ခေါက်ဆွဲသုပ် my) – wheat noodle salad with dried shrimps, shredded cabbage and carrots, dressed with fried peanut oil, fish sauce and lime
  • Let thoke son (လက်သုပ်စုံ my) – similar to htamin thoke with shredded green papaya, shredded carrot, ogonori sea moss and often wheat noodles
  • Nan gyi thoke (နန်းကြီးသုပ် my) or Mandalay mont di, thick rice noodle salad with chickpea flour, chicken, fish cake, onions, coriander, spring onions, crushed dried chilli, dressed with fried crispy onion oil, fish sauce and lime
  • Samusa thoke (စမူဆာသုပ် my) – samosa salad with onions, cabbage, fresh mint, potato curry, masala, chili powder, salt and lime
  • Kya zan thoke – glass vermicelli salad with boiled prawn julienne and mashed curried duck eggs and potatoes

Curries

Main article: Burmese curry
A traditional Danu-style meal featuring a curry broth, rice disks, and a requisite plate of blanched vegetables and dip.

Burmese curry refers to a diverse array of dishes in Burmese cuisine that consist of protein or vegetables simmered or stewed in an base of aromatics. Burmese curries generally differ from other Southeast Asian curries (e.g., Thai curry) in that Burmese curries make use of dried spices, in addition to fresh herbs and aromatics, and are often milder.The most common variety of curry is called sibyan (ဆီပြန်; lit. 'oil returns'), which is typified by a layer of oil that separates from the gravy and meat after cooked. Pork, chicken, goat, shrimp, and fish are commonly prepared in Burmese curries.

  • Pork sibyan (ဝက်သားဆီပြန်) – classic Burmese curry with fatty cuts of pork
  • Chicken sibyan (ကြက်သားဆီပြန်) – the classic Burmese curry, served with a thick gravy of aromatics
  • Bachelor's chicken curry (ကြက်ကာလသားချက်) – a red and watery chicken curry cooked with calabash
  • Goat hnat (ဆိတ်သားနှပ်) – a braised goat curry spiced with masala, cinnamon sticks, bay leaf, and cloves
  • Nga thalaut paung (ငါးသလောက်ပေါင်း my) – a curry of hilsa fish and tomatoes, which is slowly simmered to melt the fish bones
  • Egg curry (ဘဲဥချဥ်ရည်ဟင်း) – a sour curry made with hardboiled duck or chicken eggs, cooked in tamarind paste and mashed tomatoes

Soups

Dandalun chinyay, a sour soup with chopped drumsticks

In Burmese cuisine, soups typically accompany meals featuring both rice and noodles, and are paired accordingly to balance contrasting flavors. Lightly flavored soups, called hin gyo (ဟင်းချို) are served with saltier dishes, while sour soups, called chinyay hin (ချဉ်ရည်ဟင်း), are paired with rich, fatty Burmese curries.

Thizon chinyay (သီးစုံချဉ်ရည် my, lit. 'sour soup of assorted vegetables'), cooked with drumstick, lady's finger, eggplant, green beans, potato, onions, ginger, dried chilli, boiled eggs, dried salted fish, fish paste and tamarind, is an elevated version of chinyay hin, and served during festive occasions.

Other grains and breads

Palata is commonly dusted with sugar as a dessert or teatime snack.

Indian breads are commonly eaten for breakfast or teatime in Myanmar. Palata (ပလာတာ), also known as htattaya (ထပ်တစ်ရာ), a flaky fried flatbread related to Indian paratha, is often eaten with curried meats or as dessert with sprinkled sugar, while nanbya (နံပြား), a baked flatbread, is eaten with any Indian dishes. Other favorites include aloo poori (အာလူးပူရီ), chapati (ချပါတီ), and appam (အာပုံ).

Burmese-style omelette fried with acacia leaves

Other dishes include:

  • Burmese tofu (ရှမ်းတို့ဟူး my) – a tofu of Shan origin made from chickpea flour, eaten as fritters, in a salad, or in porridge forms
  • A sein kyaw (အစိမ်းကြော် my) – cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, green beans, baby corn, corn flour or tapioca starch, tomatoes, squid sauce
  • Ngapi daung (ငါးပိထောင်း) – a spicy Rakhine-style condiment made from pounded ngapi and green chili
  • Nga baung htoke (ငါးပေါင်းထုပ် my) – a Mon-style steamed parcel of mixed vegetables and prawns, wrapped in morinda and banana leaves
  • Wet tha chin (ဝက်သားချဉ် my) – Shan-style preserved minced pork in rice

Snacks

Main articles: Mont (food) and Burmese fritters
A street hawker in Ponnagyun selling an assortment of fritters and mont to passersby.

Burmese cuisine has a wide variety of traditional snacks called mont, ranging from sweet desserts to savory food items that are steamed, baked, fried, deep-fried, or boiled. Traditional Burmese fritters, consisting of vegetables or seafood that have been battered and deep-fried, are also eaten as snacks or as toppings.

Savory snacks include:

  • Hpet htok (lit. 'leaf wrap', ဖက်ထုပ် my) – meat, pastry paper, ginger, garlic, pepper powder, and salt. Usually served with soup or noodles.
  • Samusa (စမူဆာ my) – Burmese-style samosa with mutton and onions served with fresh mint, green chilli, onions and lime
  • Burmese pork offal skewers (ဝက်သား တုတ်ထိုး my) – pork offal cooked in light soy sauce, and eaten with raw ginger and chili sauce.
  • Htamane (ထမနဲ my) – dessert made from glutinous rice, shredded coconuts and peanuts

Sweet snacks include:

  • Mont let hsaung (မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း my) – tapioca or rice noodles, glutinous rice, grated coconut and toasted sesame with jaggery syrup in coconut milk
  • Sanwin makin (ဆနွင်းမကင်း my) – semolina cake with raisins, walnuts and poppy seeds
  • Shwe yin aye (ရွှေရင်အေး my) – agar jelly, tapioca and sago in coconut milk
  • Pathein halawa (ပုသိမ်ဟာလဝါ my) – a sticky sweetmeat made of glutinous rice, butter, coconut milk, inspired by Indian halwa
  • Hpaluda (ဖာလူဒါ my) – rose water, milk, coconut jelly, coconut shavings, sometimes served with egg custard and ice cream, similar to Indian falooda
  • Ngapyaw baung (ငှက်ပျောပေါင်း) – A Mon-style dessert of bananas stewed in milk and coconut, and garnished with black sesame
  • Saw hlaing mont (စောလှိုင်မုန့်) – a Rakhine-style baked sweet, made from millet, raisins, coconut and butter

Fruits and fruit preserves

A street-side fruit stall in Yangon.

Myanmar has a wide range of fruits, mostly of tropical origin. Fruit is commonly eaten as a snack or dessert. While most fruits are eaten fresh, a few, including jengkol, are boiled, roasted or otherwise cooked. Popular fruits include banana, mango, watermelon, papaya, jujube, avocado, pomelo, and guava. Others include marian plum, mangosteen, sugar-apple, rambutan, durian, jackfruit, lychee, and pomegranate. Some fruits, including green mangoes, plums, and guavas, are traditionally eaten before they ripen, often mixed with chili powder and salt.

Burmese fruit preserves, called yo (ယို), are also commonly eaten as standalone snacks. Common ones include fruit preserves made from fig, jujube, marian plum, citrus, mango, pineapple, and durian.

300 cultivars of mango are grown in Myanmar, including seintalon (စိန်တစ်လုံး, lit. 'one diamond'), Ma Chit Su (မချစ်စု), and mya kyauk (မြကျောက်, lit. 'emerald stone'). 13 species of banana are locally cultivated in Myanmar, including the following cultivars:

  • red - locally called shweni (ရွှေနီ, lit. 'golden red')
  • Dwarf Cavendish - locally called htawbat (သီးမွှေး, lit. 'fragrant fruit')
  • Mysore - locally called Rakhine (ရခိုင်), sweet and rounder in shape
  • Latundan - locally called htawbat (ထောပတ်, lit. 'butter')

Beverages

Clay pots containing drinking water are commonly seen throughout Myanmar, left for travellers and passersby to rehydrate.

Tea is the national drink of Myanmar, reflecting the influence of Buddhism and its views on temperance. Tea is central to Burmese dining culture; complimentary green tea is customarily served to diners at restaurants and teashops alike. Various liquid concoctions made from fruits and coconut milk, including sugarcane juice, and mont let hsaung (မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း) are also popular. Indigenous fermented drinks like palm wine are also found across the country. During a traditional Burmese meal, drinks are not often served; instead, the usual liquid refreshment is a light broth or consommé served from a communal bowl.

Burmese tea

Snacks served at a Burmese tea house alongside Burmese milk tea.
Main articles: Laphet and Burmese milk tea

Plain green tea, yay nway gyan (ရေနွေးကြမ်း, lit. 'crude tea water'), is a popular form of tea drunk in Myanmar. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated in Shan State and Kachin State. Milk tea, called laphet yay cho (လက်ဖက်ရည်ချို), made with strongly brewed black tea leaves, and sweetened with a customized ratio of condensed milk and evaporated milk, is also popular.

Alcohol

See also: Beer in Myanmar
Shwe yin aye is a popular and refreshing dessert

Palm wine, called htan yay (ထန်းရည်), made from the fermented sap of the toddy palm, is traditionally consumed in rural parts of Upper Myanmar Ethnic communities, including the Kachin and Shan, also brew local moonshines. Several ethnic minorities traditionally brew alcoholic beverages using rice or glutinous rice called khaung [my] (ခေါင်ရည်). The khaung of the Chin peoples is brewed using millet seeds. Locally brewed beers include Irrawaddy, Mandalay, Myanmar, and Tiger.

Food establishments

Restaurants

Dine-in restaurants that serve steamed rice with traditional Burmese curries and dishes are called htamin hsaing (ထမင်းဆိုင်; lit. 'rice shop'). At traditional curry shops, soup is typically served complimentary, alongside pickled and raw vegetables, chutneys and various seasonings.

Tea shops

An outdoor café in Yangon

During British rule in Burma, Burmese Indians introduced tea shops to the country, first known as kaka hsaing, which later evolved into teashops called laphet yay hsaing (လက်ဖက်ရည်ဆိုင်) or kaphi (ကဖီး), the latter word from French café. Burmese tea shop culture emerged from a combination of British, Indian, and Chinese influences throughout the colonial period. Teashops are prevalent across the country, forming an important part of communal life. Typically open throughout the day, some Burmese tea shops cater to locals, long distance drivers and travellers alike. The Burmese typically gather in tea shops to drink milk tea served with an extensive array of snacks and meals.

Street food

A street hawker selling Burmese pork offal skewers.

Street food stalls and hawkers are a feature of the Burmese urban landscape, especially in major cities like Yangon. Burmese salads, snacks, and fritters are especially popular street foods. In recent years, some major cities have clamped down on street food vendors. In 2016, Yangon banned the city's 6,000 street vendors from selling food on major thoroughfares, and relocated them to formal night markets set up by the city.

Night markets, called nya zay (ညဈေး), are a feature of many Burmese towns and cities. Colonial observers as early as 1878 noted Burmese street hawkers selling delicacies, such as fruits, cakes, and laphet during "night bazaars." The streets surrounding major daytime markets, such as Zegyo Market in Mandalay, typically double as makeshift night markets during the evenings.

See also

This article contains . Without proper [[|rendering support]], you may see instead of Burmese script.

Further reading

External links

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