Tofu/ja

豆腐
生の和風絹ごし豆腐のブロック
別名	Bean curd
主な材料	豆乳

豆腐（Tofu (Japanese: 豆腐, Hepburn: Tōfu, Korean: 두부; RR: dubu, Chinese: 豆腐; pinyin: dòufu)）または豆乳凝固物とは、豆乳を凝固させ、得られたカードを様々な柔らかさの白い固形ブロック（絹ごし、ソフト、しっかり、特硬または超硬）に押し固めて作られる食品である。中国が発祥で、2,000年以上にわたり同国で食されてきた。豆腐は、多くの東アジア料理や東南アジア料理の伝統的な食材であり、現代の西洋料理ではしばしば肉の代替品として利用されている。

栄養学的に、豆腐はカロリーが低い一方で、比較的多量のタンパク質を含んでいる。鉄分の信頼できる豊富な供給源であり、製造に使用される凝固剤（例：塩化カルシウム、硫酸カルシウム、硫酸マグネシウム）によっては、高いカルシウムやマグネシウムの含有量を持つこともある。

タンパク質が豊富な食品源としての豆腐の栽培は、土地利用の必要性が最も低く（1000 kcalあたり1.3 m²）、温室効果ガス排出量も最も少ない部類に入る（タンパク質100 gあたり1.6 kgのCO₂）。

語源

英語の「tofu」は、日本語の「豆腐」（豆腐）に由来する。日本語の「tofu」は、中国語の「豆腐」（標準中国語：dòufǔ; tou4-fu）「豆乳凝固物、豆の発酵物」からの借用語である。

英語におけるこの言葉の最も古い文書記録は、1704年のドミンゴ・フェルナンデス・ナバレテの著書『航海と旅行の記録』の翻訳で、豆腐の製造方法が記述されている。また、「towfu」という言葉は、1770年にイギリスの商人ジェームズ・フリントからベンジャミン・フランクリンへの書簡にも登場する。「bean curd(s)」という豆腐を表す用語は、米国では少なくとも1840年から使用されている。

歴史

豆腐作りが最初に記録されたのは、中国の漢王朝時代の西暦965年である。中国の伝説では、その発明は安徽省の劉安王子（紀元前179年-122年）によるものとされている。豆腐とその製造技術は奈良時代（710年-794年）に日本に伝えられたが、明確な記録はなく、豆腐が記録に初めて登場したのは西暦965年である。一部の学者は、豆腐は10世紀から11世紀にかけてベトナムに伝わったと考えている。それは東南アジアの他の地域にも広まった。これはおそらく、仏教の広がりと同時期であり、豆腐が東アジア仏教の菜食主義において重要なタンパク源であったためと考えられる。明朝時代の李時珍は、『本草綱目』で豆腐の製造方法について記述している。以来、豆腐はベトナム、タイ、韓国を含む多くの国で主食となり、製造方法、食感、風味、用途において地域的な多様性が見られる。

起源に関する学説

豆腐の起源に関する3つの学説の中で最も一般的に信じられているのは、豆腐が漢王朝の王子である劉安（紀元前179年-122年）によって発見されたというものである。この説はもっともらしいが、この時代の信頼できる史料が少ないため、決定的な判断は難しい。中国の歴史では、重要な発明はしばしばその時代の重要な指導者や人物に帰属させられてきた。1960年、後漢時代の墓から発掘された石壁画は、豆腐の漢代起源説を裏付けるものとなった。しかし、一部の学者は、漢代の豆腐は未熟なもので、豆腐と見なされるほどの硬さや風味に欠けていたと主張している。

別の説では、豆腐の製造方法は、煮沸した大豆をすりつぶしたスラリーが不純な海塩と混ざり合った際に偶然発見されたとされている。そのような海塩には、おそらくカルシウム塩やマグネシウム塩が含まれており、それが大豆混合物を凝固させ、豆腐のようなゲルを生成した可能性がある。

豆腐の起源に関する最後の学説群は、古代中国人がモンゴル人の乳を凝固させる技術を模倣して豆乳を凝固させる方法を学んだとするものである。この説の主な証拠は、隋王朝時代（西暦581年～618年）にヨーグルトや軟質チーズのような一貫性を持つ料理に使われ、後にモンゴルの乳製品や製造方法の影響を受けた中国語の「乳腐」（乳腐、「凝固した乳」の意）という用語と、「豆腐」（豆腐、「凝固した豆」の意）または豆腐という用語との間の語源的な類似性である。これは興味深く、可能性のある説ではあるが、学術的な推測を超えてこの説を裏付ける証拠はない。

東アジア

中国

「List of Chinese inventions/ja」も参照

漢王朝（紀元前202年～紀元220年）の時代に豆腐の一種が発見された可能性があるが、中国で一般的な食品となるのは宋王朝（960年～1279年）まで待たなければならなかった。

中国では、豆腐は伝統的に故人の親族の墓で食べられていた。幽霊は顎をずっと昔に失っているため、豆腐だけが彼らが食べられるほど柔らかいと考えられていた。中国で冷蔵が普及する前は、豆腐は寒い季節に腐りにくいため、通常冬にのみ販売されていた。暖かい季節には、一度作られた豆腐は1日以上放置すると腐敗してしまった。

日本

土佐光信による豆腐売り（右）と素麺売り（左）の挿絵、『七十一番職人歌合』（七十一番職人歌合、1500年頃に書かれた歌集）より

豆腐は禅宗の僧侶によって日本にもたらされ、彼らは当初それを"Chinese curd" (唐符, tōfu)と呼んだ。豆腐に関する最古の日本の文献は、1183年に奈良の春日大社で供物として出されたことを記している。

中国から伝わった豆腐は、当初、沖縄の島豆腐、石川県白山市や富山県五箇山、徳島県祖谷地方の硬い豆腐など、硬い豆腐であったと考えられている。文禄・慶長の役後、土佐国（現在の高知県）には、捕虜となった秋月城主の朴氏によって硬い豆腐が伝わり、彼は町と寛大な保護を与えられ、その家族や部下は多くの硬い豆腐店を経営し、独占していた。徐々に、滑らかな食感の豆腐を生産する方法が考案され、現代の絹ごし豆腐が誕生した。江戸時代の1782年に出版された『豆腐百珍』には、豆腐の100の調理法が掲載されている。

東南アジア

東南アジアでは、豆腐は福建省出身の中国人移民によってこの地域に紹介された。これは、東南アジアの多くの国々が豆腐を、軟らかい豆腐または硬い豆腐を表す閩南語（それぞれ「tāu-hū」または「tāu-goaⁿ」）で呼んでいることからも明らかである。インドネシア、マレーシア、シンガポール、タイ、カンボジア、ミャンマー、フィリピン、ベトナムでは、豆腐は広く普及しており、多くの郷土料理に使われている。

インドネシアでは豆腐を「タフ」と呼び、インドネシア料理のタフ・スンバット、タウゲ・タフ、アシナン、シオーマイ、一部のカレーには、しばしば豆腐のスライスが加えられる。タフ・ゴレン、タフ・イシ、タフ・スメダンは人気の揚げ豆腐スナックである。

マレーシアとシンガポールでは、豆腐を「タウフー」と呼ぶ。マレーシアとシンガポールのインド系住民は、インドのミーゴレンやロジャック・パセンボルなどで豆腐を使用する。プラナカン料理では、ペナンカレーヌードルやラクサなど、しばしば豆腐を使用する。インドネシア、タイ、マレーシア、フィリピンは豆腐の主要生産国であり、多くの自治体に工場がある。

フィリピンでは、豆腐は朝食のスナック「タホ」（軟らかい豆腐、フィリピン・ホッケン語の豆腐「tāu-hū」に由来）として広く食べられている。また、「トクワ」（通常揚げられる、乾燥した硬い豆腐、フィリピン・ホッケン語の豆干「tāu-goaⁿ」に由来）としても食べられており、これは主食における肉の代替品として、また多くの地域料理における主食である。豆腐は10世紀から13世紀にかけて、宋王朝の中国人船員や商人によって、他の多くの食品とともにフィリピンの主要な食料品として群島にもたらされた。豆腐の使用と生産は、当初、セブやトンドなど、影響力のある中国系少数民族が住む都市部に限定されていたが、遠隔地の先住民の村や島々にも急速に広まった。

その他の地域

ベンジャミン・フランクリンは、1770年にジョン・バートラムへの手紙で初めて豆腐について言及したアメリカ人である。ロンドンへの旅行中に豆腐に出会ったフランクリンは、数粒の大豆を添え、それを中国の「チーズ」と呼んだ。1770年には、フランクリンはジェームズ・フリントと、中国人がカリバン（大豆）を豆腐に変換する方法について書簡を交わしている。フリントの手紙にある「Towfu」という表記は、英語における「tofu」の最も古い文献記録である。米国初の豆腐会社は1878年に設立された。1908年、農業と生物学のフランスの学位を持つ中国人アナキストでベジタリアンであった李石曽は、世界初の豆乳工場であり、フランスで初めて豆乳凝固物を製造販売する工場であるウージン・ド・ラ・カセオ＝ソジャインを開設した。

しかし、豆腐は20世紀半ばまでほとんどの西洋人には知られていなかったが、ウィリアム・シャートレフとアキコ・アオヤギ（『The Book of Tofu』、1975年）によって米国で普及した。

生産

豆腐の作り方

凝固した豆乳カード

豆腐型の中のカード

製品や製造規模に関わらず、豆腐の製造は基本的に以下の工程で構成されている:

1. 豆乳の準備
2. 豆乳を凝固させてドウファ（カード）を形成する
3. 大豆カードを圧縮して豆腐の塊を形成する

乳製品のチーズの製造と同様に、乳を凝固させてカードを形成し、そのカードを圧搾して熟成させてチーズを形成する。典型的な豆腐の製造手順は、洗浄、浸漬、大豆を水で挽く、濾過、煮沸、凝固、圧搾である。

煮沸した豆乳中に懸濁しているタンパク質と油（乳化液）の凝固は、豆腐製造において最も重要な工程である。この工程は凝固剤の助けを借りて行われる。凝固は複雑な相互作用に依存しており、使用する大豆の品種とタンパク質含有量、スラリーの加熱温度、凝固温度など、多くの変数が関係する。

大豆タンパク質は主に7Sおよび11Sタンパク質から構成されている。これらのグロブリンの負の表面電荷は通常、互いに反発し合う原因となる。豆乳を加熱するとタンパク質が変性し、通常グロブリン構造の内側に向いている疎水性基が露出する。凝固剤からの陽イオンが負に帯電した基と結合する。タンパク質分子の正味電荷が中和されると、反発性の静電荷よりも魅力的な疎水性相互作用が優勢になり、タンパク質凝集体が形成される。

Two types of coagulants (salts and acids) are used commercially.

Salt coagulants

Tofu tools

Dubu-teul ('tofu mold') from Korea

Dubu-kal ('tofu knife') from Korea

• Calcium sulfate (gypsum) (Chinese: 石膏; pinyin: shígāo) – the traditional and most widely used coagulant to produce Chinese-style tofu, it produces a tofu that is tender but slightly brittle in texture. The coagulant itself is tasteless. Also known as gypsum, calcium sulfate is quarried from geological deposits, and no chemical processing or refining is needed, making it the cheapest coagulant used in tofu production. When used in production, the coagulation reaction is slower due to its low solubility, forming a smooth, more gelatinous tofu with relatively high water content and soft texture. Use of this coagulant also makes tofu that is rich in calcium. As such, many tofu manufacturers choose to use this coagulant to be able to market their tofu as a good source of dietary calcium.
• Chloride-type nigari salts or lushui (Traditional: 鹵水, 滷水; Simplified: 卤水; Pinyin: lǔshuǐ) – Magnesium chloride and calcium chloride: Both of these salts are highly soluble in water and affect soy protein in the same way, whereas gypsum is only very slightly soluble in water and acts differently in soy protein precipitation, the basis of tofu formation. These are the coagulants used to make tofu with a smooth and tender texture. In Japan, a white powder called nigari, which consists primarily of magnesium chloride, is produced from seawater after the sodium chloride is removed and the water evaporated. Depending on its production method, nigari/Lushui may also contain small quantities of magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), potassium chloride, calcium chloride, and trace amounts of other naturally occurring salts. Although the term nigari is derived from nigai, the Japanese word for "bitter", neither nigari nor pure magnesium chloride imparts a perceivable taste to the finished tofu. Calcium chloride is not found in seawater in significant quantities and therefore is not regarded as nigari. It is used extensively in the United States due to its flavor and low cost. Fresh clean seawater itself can also be used as a coagulant.

Acid coagulants

• Glucono delta-lactone (GDL): A naturally occurring organic acid also used in cheesemaking, this coagulant produces a very fine textured tofu that is almost jelly-like. It is used especially for "silken" and softer tofus and confers a faint sour taste to the finished product. GDL is derived from glucose and takes the form of a white powder at room temperature. Its molecular structure contains a six-membered heterocyclic ring that is hydrolyzed upon contact with water, slowly converting GDL to gluconic acid. forming a single, smooth gel that is free of air gaps and that resists breaking during transportation. Using GDL as a coagulant, silken tofu can be formed directly in its container, as it does not require pressing. This acid coagulant is also commonly used together with calcium sulfate to give soft tofu a smooth, tender texture.
• Other edible acids: Though they can affect the taste of the tofu more, and vary in density and texture, acids such as acetic acid (vinegar) and citric acid (such as lemon juice), can also be used to coagulate soy milk and produce tofu.

Enzyme coagulants

• Among enzymes that have been shown to produce tofu are papain, and alkaline and neutral proteases from microorganisms. Papain, moreover, has been studied as a gelling agent to produce "instant tofu" from soy protein isolate and soy glycinin (11S) protein.

Contemporary tofu manufacturers may choose to use one or more of these coagulants since each plays a role in producing the desired texture in the finished tofu. Different textures result from different pore sizes and other microscopic features in the tofu produced using each coagulant. The coagulant mixture is dissolved in water, and the solution is then stirred into boiled soy milk until the mixture curdles into a soft gel.

Coagulants are typically added at concentrations between 1.5 and 5.0 g/kg. In all coagulants consisting of calcium or magnesium salts, the positive double-bonded ions of the calcium or magnesium are responsible for the coagulation of the soy proteins which become part of the tofu, thereby enhancing its nutritional value. Only 1 part per 1000 of the tofu eaten is coagulant; most of the coagulant reacts with soy protein and is broken down into ions. The non-reactive portion dissolves in the soy whey and is discarded.

The curds are processed differently depending on the form of tofu that is being manufactured. For soft silken tofu (嫩豆腐; nèndòufu in Chinese or 絹漉し豆腐 kinugoshi-dōfu in Japanese) or tofu pudding (豆花, dòuhuā or 豆腐花, dòufuhuā in Chinese, or おぼろ豆腐 Oboro-dōfu in Japanese) the soy milk is curdled directly in the tofu's final packaging. For standard firm East Asian tofu, the soy curd is cut and strained of excess liquid using cheesecloth or muslin and then lightly pressed to produce a soft cake. Firmer tofus, such as East Asian dry tofu (豆干 in Chinese or 凍み豆腐 Shimi-dōfu in Japanese) or Western types of tofu, are further pressed to remove even more liquid. In Vietnam, the curd is strained and molded in a square mold, and the end product is called đậu khuôn (molded bean) or đậu phụ (one of the Vietnamese ways to pronounce the Chinese dòufu). The tofu curds are allowed to cool and become firm. The finished tofu can then be cut into pieces, flavored or further processed.

Although tartness is sometimes desired in dessert tofu, the acid used in flavoring is usually not the primary coagulant, since concentrations sufficiently high to induce coagulation negatively affect the flavor or texture of the resulting tofu. A sour taste in tofu and a slight cloudiness in its storing liquid is also usually an indication of bacterial growth and, hence, spoilage.

Colour

The whiteness of tofu is ultimately determined by the soybean variety, soybean protein composition, and degree of aggregation of the tofu gel network. The yellowish-beige color of soybeans is due to the color compounds including anthocyanin, isoflavones, and polyphenol compounds; therefore the soybean variety used will predicate the color of the final tofu product. Ways to reduce the yellow color include reducing isoflavone content by changing the pH of the soy milk solution used in the production of the tofu so that the relevant compounds precipitate out and are removed during the extraction of okara. The opacity of tofu gel and the off-white color typical of standard uncooked firm tofu is due to the scattering of light by the colloidal particles of the tofu. The addition of higher levels of calcium salts or a high protein content will contribute to forming a denser and more aggregated gel network which disperses more light, resulting in tofu with a whiter appearance.

Flavor

See also: Soy odor

Tofu flavor is generally described as bland, which is the taste desired by customers in North America. A more beany flavor is preferred in East Asia. The beany or bland taste is generated during the grinding and cooking process, and either a "hot grind" or a "cold grind" can be used to influence the taste. The hot grind method reduces the beany flavor by inactivating the lipoxygenase enzyme in the soy protein that is known to generate off flavors. Eliminating these flavors makes tofu that is "bland". If a cold grind is used lipoxygenase remains and produces the aldehyde, alcohol, and ester volatile compounds that create beany notes.

Varieties

A wide variety of types and flavors of tofu is available in both Western and Eastern markets. Despite the range of options, tofu products can be split into two main categories: 'fresh tofu', which is produced directly from soy milk, and 'processed tofu', which is produced from fresh tofu. Tofu production also creates important by-products that are used in various cuisines.

Unpressed fresh

Unpressed fresh tofu is gelled soy milk with curd that has not been cut and pressed of its liquid. Depending on whether the soy milk is gelled with bittern (magnesium chloride) solution or a suspension of gypsum (calcium sulphate), different types of unpressed tofu are produced. Gypsum-gelled soft tofu has a smooth and gel-like texture and is commonly known as soft tofu, silken-tofu, or douhua (豆花). The bittern-gelled variety has a very soft spongy curdled texture and is known as extra-soft or sun-dubu (순두부).

Unpressed tofu is so soft that it is directly ladled out for serving or sold with its gelling container.

Extra soft

Sun-dubu (extra soft tofu)

Unpressed bittern-gelled soft tofu is called sun-dubu (순두부; "mild tofu") in Korean. Soy milk is mixed with seawater, or saline water made with sea salt, so that it curdles. The curds remain loose and soft. Freshly made sun-dubu is eaten boiled with little or no seasoning. Manufactured sundubu is usually sold in tubes. It is also the main ingredient in sundubu-jjigae (순두부찌개; "soft tofu stew").

Although the word sun in sun-dubu does not have a Sino-Korean origin, sun-dubu is often translated into Chinese and Japanese using the Chinese character 純, whose Korean pronunciation is sun and the meaning is "pure". Thus in China, sun-dubu is called chún dòufu (純豆腐; "pure tofu"), and in Japan, it is called jun-tōfu (純豆腐) or sundubu (スンドゥブ).

Soft

Soft tofu

Soft tofu, also known as "silken tofu", is called nèndòufu (嫩豆腐; "soft tofu") or huádòufu (滑豆腐, "smooth tofu") in Chinese; kinugoshi-dōfu (絹漉し豆腐; "silk-filtered tofu") in Japanese; and yeon-dubu (Korean: 연두부; Hanja: 軟豆腐; "soft tofu") in Korean. Gelled with gypsum, this tofu is undrained, and unpressed, and contains a high moisture content. Silken tofu is produced by coagulating soy milk without cutting the curd. Silken tofu is available in several consistencies, including soft and firm, but all silken tofu is more delicate than regular firm tofu (pressed tofu) and it has different culinary uses. Silken tofu can be used as a substitute for dairy products and eggs, especially for smoothies and baked desserts.

Douhua (豆花, also known as 豆腐花, dòufuhuā in Chinese), or tofu brain (豆腐腦 or 豆腐脑, dòufunǎo in Chinese) or dau fa (Cantonese) and tau hua (Fujianese) (豆花; "bean flower") is similar to silken tofu, but is typically served a few hours after it is prepared. It is most often eaten as a hot dessert, but sometimes salty pickles or hot sauce are added. This is a type of soft tofu with very high moisture content. Because using chopsticks make douhua difficult to pick up, it is generally eaten with a spoon. With the addition of flavorings such as finely chopped spring onions, dried shrimp, soy sauce, or chilli sauce, douhua is a popular breakfast dish across China. In Malaysia, douhua is usually served warm with white or dark palm sugar syrup, or served cold with longans. It is frequently served at breakfast or for dessert. It is usually served either with a sweet ginger syrup, or a mushroom gravy called da lu (打卤). It's normally coagulated at the restaurant into a serving container. Douhua is not always considered a type of tofu, but rather a type of food in its own right.

Some variation exists among soft tofus. Black douhua (黑豆花, hēidòuhuā) is a type of silken tofu made from black soybeans, which is usually made into dòuhuā (豆花) rather than firm or dry tofu. The texture of black bean tofu is slightly more gelatinous than regular douhua and the color is greyish in tone. This type of tofu is eaten for its earthy "black bean taste". Edamame tofu is a Japanese variety of kinugoshi tōfu made from edamame (fresh green soybeans); it is pale green in color and often studded with whole edamame.

Pressed fresh

Depending on the amount of water that is extracted from the cut and pressed curds two types of tofu are produced: firm, and extra firm. Fresh tofu is usually sold completely immersed in water to maintain its moisture content and freshness, and to suppress bacterial growth.

Firm

Firm tofu

Firm tofu (called 老豆腐 lǎodòufu in Chinese; 木綿豆腐, momen-dōfu in Japanese, "cotton tofu"; 모두부, mo-dubu in Korean): Although drained and pressed, this form of fresh tofu retains a high moisture content. It has the firmness of raw meat and bounces back readily when pressed. The texture of the inside of the tofu is similar to that of a firm custard. The skin of this form of tofu retains the pattern of the muslin used to drain it, and the outside is slightly more resistant to damage than the inside. It can be picked up easily with chopsticks.

A very firm type of momen-dōfu is eaten in parts of Japan, called ishi-dōfu (石豆腐, "stone tofu") in parts of Ishikawa, or iwa-dōfu (岩豆腐, "rock tofu") in Gokayama in the Toyama Prefecture and in Iya in the prefecture of Tokushima. These types of firm tofu are produced with seawater instead of nigari (magnesium chloride), or using concentrated soy milk. Some of them are squeezed using heavy weights to eliminate excess moisture. These products are produced in areas where traveling is inconvenient, such as remote islands, mountain villages, and heavy snowfall areas.

Extra-firm

Main article: Dougan

Dòugān (extra firm tofu)

Dòugān (豆干, literally "dry tofu" in Chinese) is an extra firm variety of tofu where a large proportion of the liquid has been pressed out. Dòugān contains the least moisture of all fresh tofu, the firmness of fully cooked meat, and a somewhat rubbery feel similar to that of paneer. It is not easily crumbled except when it's sliced thinly. Some varieties of dougan has the pattern of the muslin used to drain and press it.

One way to cook dougan is to cut it into thin slices called shredded dried tofu (豆干絲, dòugānsī in Chinese, or simply 干絲, gānsī). The strings look like loose cooked noodles and can be served cold, stir-fried, or added to soup, as with Japanese aburaage.

Baiye

Baiye, qianzhang, or gandoufu (百叶; 千张; 干豆腐) is a very flat (about 2 mm thick) type of extra-firm tofu. It cannot be crumbled. The surface is filled with bulges arranged in a square grid from the muslin used to press it. It can be cut into long strings with a cross-section smaller than 2 mm × 2 mm and eaten in a way similar to gansi. It is also used to make：

• Su ji (素鸡, "vegetarian chicken"), either by being rolled up or by being pressed together and fried.
• Baiye jie (百叶结 "baiye knots"), by slicing into 2 cm × 10 cm slices and tying the slice up.
• Various dishes that roll other food items inside a piece of baiye.

Processed tofu

Many forms of processed tofu exist. Some processing techniques probably originate before the days of refrigeration from the need to preserve tofu or to increase its shelf life. Other production techniques are employed to create tofus with different textures and flavors.

Fermented

Pickled tofu

• Pickled tofu (豆腐乳 in Chinese, pinyin: dòufurǔ, or 腐乳 fŭrŭ; chao in Vietnamese), also called "preserved tofu" or "fermented tofu", consists of cubes of dried tofu that have been allowed to fully air-dry under hay and slowly ferment with the help of aerial bacteria. The dry fermented tofu is then soaked in salt water, Chinese rice wine, vinegar or minced chiles, or in a mixture of whole rice, bean paste, and soybeans. In the case of red pickled tofu (紅豆腐乳 in Chinese, Pinyin: hóng dòufurǔ), red yeast rice (cultivated with Monascus purpureus) is added for color. In Japan, pickled tofu with miso paste is called tofu no misodzuke, and is a traditional preserved food in Kumamoto. In Okinawa, pickled and fermented tofu is called tofuyo (豆腐餻). It is made from Shima-doufu (an Okinawan variety of large and firm tofu). It is fermented and matured with koji mold, red koji mold, and awamori.
• Stinky tofu (臭豆腐 in Chinese, Pinyin: chòudòufu) is soft tofu that has been fermented in a vegetable and fish brine. The blocks of tofu have a pungent cheese smell, sometimes resembling rotting food. Despite its strong odor, the flavor and texture of stinky tofu is appreciated by aficionados, who describe it as delightful. The texture of this tofu is similar to the soft East Asian tofu from which it is made. The rind that stinky tofu develops when fried is said to be best when especially crisp, and fried stinky tofu is usually served with soy sauce, sweet sauce, or hot sauce.

Frozen

Thawed and sliced frozen tofu

Koya-dofu after soaking in water

Frozen tofu (凍豆腐 dòngdòufu, 冰豆腐 bīngdòufu in Chinese, both meaning "frozen tofu")

A frozen tofu. The ice crystals that develop within it result in the formation of large cavities that appear to be layered. Frozen tofu takes on a yellowish hue in the freezing process. Frozen tofu originates in the Jiangnan region of China and is commonly made at home from soft tofu. It is also commercially sold as a specialty in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and other areas with Jiangnan emigrants. It is regularly paired with tatsoi as a winter dish. Frozen tofu is defrosted before serving and sometimes pressed to remove moisture prior to use.

During freezing, the ice crystals puncture cell walls and facilitate the release of free and bound water and cause a decrease in total water content in tofu after freezing then thawing. The initial protein-water bonds are irreversibly replaced by protein-protein bonds, which are more elastic and cause a structural change to the gel network and lead to an increase in textural properties such as hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and gumminess.

In Japan, two kinds of freeze-dried tofu are produced. Those are usually rehydrated by being soaked in water prior to consumption. In their dehydrated state, they do not require refrigeration.

• Koya-dofu (kōya-dōfu, 高野豆腐 in Japanese) is a freeze-dried type also known as kori tofu (凍り豆腐, literally "frozen tofu"). Originally from Mount Kōya, a center of Japanese Buddhism famed for its shōjin ryōri, or traditional Buddhist vegetarian cuisine. It is said that the method of Koya-dofu was discovered by accident by leaving tofu outdoors in the winter season. It is sold in freeze-dried blocks or cubes in Japanese markets. It is typically simmered in dashi, sake or mirin and soy sauce. In shōjin ryōri, vegetarian kombu dashi, made from seaweed, is used. When prepared in the usual manner, it has a spongy texture and a mildly sweet or savory flavor. The taste and flavor depend on what soup or cooking stock it was simmered in. A similar form of freeze-dried tofu, in smaller pieces, is found in instant soups (such as miso soup), in which the toppings are freeze-dried and stored in sealed pouches.
• Shimidofu (凍み豆腐) is mainly consumed in the Tohoku region. While Koya-dofu is made by shade-drying, shimidofu is made by sun-drying.

By-products

Tofu skin

Tofu skin

Tofu skin is produced when soy milk is boiled in an open, shallow pan, thus producing a film or skin composed primarily of a soy protein-lipid complex on the liquid surface. The films are collected and dried into yellowish sheets known as "soy milk skin" (腐皮, fǔpí in Chinese; 湯葉, yuba in Japanese). Its approximate composition is 50–55% protein, 24–26% lipids (fat), 12% carbohydrate, 3% ash, and 9% moisture.

The skin can also be dried into a product known as "tofu bamboo" (腐竹, fǔzhú in Chinese; phù trúc in Vietnamese; kusatake, Japanese), or into many other shapes. Since tofu skin has a soft yet rubbery texture, it can be folded or shaped into different forms and cooked further to imitate meat in vegan cuisine. Some factories dedicate their production to tofu skin and other soy membrane products. Tofu skin is commonly sold in the form of dried leaves or sheets. Other people would put the "tofu bamboo" into congee (a watery rice mixture that is eaten for breakfast) so that the congee becomes more silky and smooth, and gives a whole new texture. Also, soft, fragile skin would be on the congee once it cools down. Tofu skin is cooked with noodles.

Soy pulp

Main article: Okara (food)

Okara, from the Japanese 雪花菜(おから) is known as 雪花菜 xuěhuācài, in Chinese, lit. "snowflake vegetable"; 豆腐渣, dòufuzhā, also Chinese, lit. "tofu sediment/residue"; and 콩비지, kongbiji, in Korean).

Sometimes known in the west as "soy pulp" or "tofu lees", okara is a tofu by-product consisting of the fiber, protein, and starch left over when soy milk has been extracted from ground soaked soybeans. It is often used as animal feed in most tofu-producing cultures, but also has other uses in Japanese and Korean cuisines, such as in the Korean stew kongbiji jjigae (콩비지찌개). It is also an ingredient for vegetarian burgers in many Western nations. In Japan, it is used to make ice cream.

Tofu-like foods

The term tofu is used by extension for similarly textured curdled dishes that do not use soy products, such as "almond tofu" (almond jelly), tamago-dōfu (egg), goma-dōfu (sesame), or peanut tofu (Chinese 落花生豆腐 luòhuāshēng dòufu and Okinawan jīmāmi-dōfu).

Due to their East Asian origins and their textures, many food items are called "tofu", even though their production processes are not technically similar. For instance, many sweet almond tofus are actually gelatinous desserts hardened using agar or gelatin. Some foods, such as Burmese tofu, are not coagulated from the "milk" of the legume but rather set in a manner similar to soft polenta, Korean muk, or the jidou liangfen of Yunnan province of southwest China.

Almond tofu

"Almond tofu" (Chinese: 杏仁豆腐 xìngrén dòufu; Japanese: annindōfu) is a milky white and gelatinous substance resembling tofu, but it does not use soy products or soy milk and is hardened with agar. A similar dessert made with coconut milk or mango juices may occasionally be referred to as "coconut tofu" or "mango tofu", although such names are also given to hot dishes that use soy tofu and coconut or mango in the recipe.

Chickpea tofu

Main article: Burmese tofu

Burmese tofu (to hpu in Burmese) is a legume product made from besan (chana dal) flour; the Shan variety uses yellow split pea flour instead. Both types are yellow in color and generally found only in Myanmar, and Yunnan province of China, though the Burman variety is also available in some overseas restaurants serving Burmese cuisine. The term is believed to be derived from Dou Fen (bean Jelly) from Chinese and it was adopted to Burmese cuisine through Shan people ( Dai people of Yunnan) . Burmese tofu may be fried as fritters cut into rectangular or triangular shapes.

A variety called hsan to hpu (or hsan ta hpo in Shan regions) is made from rice flour (called hsan hmont or mont hmont) and is white in color with the same consistency as yellow Burmese tofu when set. It is eaten as a salad in the same manner as yellow tofu.

Egg tofu

Egg tofu (Japanese: 玉子豆腐, 卵豆腐, tamagodōfu) (Chinese: 蛋豆腐, dàndòufu; often called 日本豆腐, Rìbĕn dòufu, lit. "Japan bean curd") is the main type of savory flavored tofu. Whole beaten eggs are combined with dashi, poured into molds, and cooked in a steamer (cf. chawanmushi). This tofu has a pale golden color that can be attributed to the addition of eggs and, occasionally, food coloring. This tofu has a fuller texture and flavor than silken tofu, due to the presence of egg fat and proteins. Plain "dried tofu" can be flavored by stewing in soy sauce (滷) to make soy-sauce tofu. It is common to see tofu sold from hot food stalls in this soy-sauce stewed form. Today Egg "Japanese" tofu is made of eggs, water, vegetable protein, and seasoning.

Egg tofu was invented in Japan during the Edo period. The book《万宝料理秘密箱》written in 1785 recorded how to make Japanese tofu. Later the Japanese form of tofu entered Southeast Asia, being introduced to China in 1995 from Malaysia.

100 grams of Egg tofu has 17 mg calcium, 24 mg magnesium, and 5 grams protein while 100 grams tofu has 138 mg calcium, 63 mg magnesium and 12.2 grams protein. Compared with tofu, Japanese tofu's nutritional value is lower.

Tofu dishes common in Japan include three delicacies (三鲜) Japanese tofu; shrimp Japanese tofu; Japanese tofu in ketchup; teppanyaki Japanese tofu; and Japanese fish-flavored tofu.

Peanut tofu

In Okinawa, Japan, jīmāmi-dōfu a peanut milk, made by crushing raw peanuts, adding water and straining, is combined with starch (usually sweet potato, known locally as umukuji or umukashi (芋澱粉)) and heated until curdling occurs.

The Chinese equivalent is 落花生豆腐 luòhuāshēng dòufu.

Sesame tofu

The tofu known as goma-dōfu is made by grinding sesame into a smooth paste, combining it with liquid and kudzu starch, and heating it until curdling occurs. It is often served chilled as hiyayakko.

Thousand-layer tofu

Thousand-layer tofu (simplified Chinese: 千叶豆腐; traditional Chinese: 千葉豆腐; pinyin: qiānyè dòufu; lit. 'thousand-layer tofu') is not a true tofu made by coagulation of soymilk, but a modern invention made from soy protein isolate and a source of starch. It has a smooth, bouncy texture somewhat comparable to kamaboko. Originally a Taiwanese invention called hundred-layer tofu (百葉豆腐), it was renamed in China to avoid confusion with the existing type of extra-firm tofu called baiye.

Preparation

Tofu has very little flavor or smell of its own. Consequently, tofu can be used in both savory and sweet dishes, acting as a bland background for presenting the flavors of the other ingredients used. In order to flavor the tofu it is often marinated in soy sauce, chillis, sesame oil, etc.

In East Asian cooking, tofu is prepared in many ways, including raw, stewed, stir-fried, in soup, cooked in sauce, or stuffed with fillings. The idea of using tofu as a meat substitute is not common in East Asia.

East Asia

China

Many Chinese tofu dishes such as jiācháng dòufu (家常豆腐) and mápó dòufu (麻婆豆腐) may include meat.

In Chinese cuisine, Dòuhuā (豆花) is served with toppings such as boiled peanuts, azuki beans, cooked oatmeal, tapioca, mung beans, or a syrup flavored with ginger or almond. During the summer, "dòuhuā" is served with crushed ice; in the winter, it is served warm. In many parts of China, fresh tofu is eaten with soy sauce or further flavored with katsuobushi shavings, century eggs (皮蛋 pídàn), and sesame seed oil.

With the exception of the softest tofus, all forms of tofu can be fried. Thin and soft varieties of tofu are deep fried in oil until they are light and airy in their core 豆泡 dòupào, 豆腐泡 dòufupào, 油豆腐 yóudòufu, or 豆卜 dòubǔ in Chinese, literally "bean bubble", describing the shape of the fried tofu as a bubble.

Depending on the type of tofu used, the texture of deep-fried tofu may range from crispy on the outside and custardy on the inside, to puff up like a plain doughnut. The former is usually eaten plain in Chinese cuisine with garlic soy sauce, while the latter is either stuffed with fish paste to make Yong Tau Foo or cooked in soups. In Taiwan, fried tofu is made into a dish called "A-gei", which consists of a fried aburage tofu package stuffed with noodles and capped with surimi.

Tofus such as firm East Asian and dòugān (Chinese dry tofu), with their lower moisture content, are cut into bite-sized cubes or triangles and deep fried until they develop a golden-brown, crispy surface (炸豆腐 in Chinese, zhádòufu, lit. "fried tofu"). These may be eaten on their own or with a light sauce, or further cooked in liquids; they are also added to hot pot dishes or included as part of the vegetarian dish called luohan zhai.

A spicy Sichuan preparation using firm East Asian tofu is mápó dòufu (麻婆豆腐). It involves braised tofu in a beef, chili, and fermented bean paste sauce. A vegetarian version is known as málà dòufu (麻辣豆腐).

Dried tofu is usually not eaten raw but first stewed in a mixture of soy sauce and spices. Some types of dried tofu are pre-seasoned with special blends of spices, so that the tofu may either be called "five-spice tofu" (五香豆腐 wǔxiāng dòufu) or "soy sauce stewed tofu" (鹵水豆腐 lǔshuǐ dòufu). Dried tofu is typically served thinly sliced with chopped green onions or with slices of meat for added flavor.

Tofu bamboos are often used in lamb stew or in a dessert soup. Tofu skins are often used as wrappers in dim sum. Freeze-dried tofu and frozen tofu are rehydrated and enjoyed in savory soups. These products are often taken along on camping trips since a small bag of them can provide protein for many days.

Pickled tofu is commonly used in small amounts together with its soaking liquid to flavor stir-fried or braised vegetable dishes (particularly leafy green vegetables such as water spinach). It is often eaten directly as a condiment with rice or congee.

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  Chinese soft tofu dish, pidan doufu
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  Prepared dried tofu threads (干絲, gānsī)
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  Chòudòufu is a very pungent type of tofu.
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  Sichuan-style (málà chòudòufu) numbing spicy stinky tofu
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  Tofu and potatoes grilled at a street stall in Yuanyang, Yunnan province, China
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  Douhua (豆花), is a soft tofu dish. The fresh tofu is served warm and dressed with sweet syrup.
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  A dish prepared from Sichuan-style tofu

Japan

Tofu varieties sold at a shop

In Japan, a common lunch in the summer months is hiyayakko (冷奴), silken or firm East Asian tofu served with freshly grated ginger, green onions, or katsuobushi shavings with soy sauce. In the winter, tofu is frequently eaten as yudofu, which is simmered in a clay pot in kombu dashi, with vegetables such as Chinese cabbage or green onion.

Deep fried tofu is called atsuage (厚揚げ) or namaage (生揚げ) in Japan. The thinner variety called aburaage (油揚げ), develops a tofu pouch often used for inarizushi.

In Japan, cubes of lightly coated and fried tofu topped with a kombu dashi-based sauce are called agedashi dōfu (揚げ出し豆腐). Soft tofu that has been thinly sliced and deep fried, known as aburage in Japan, is commonly blanched, seasoned with soy sauce and mirin and served in dishes such as kitsune udon.

In Gifu Prefecture, there is a local specialty called komo-dofu, which consists of tofu that has been wrapped in a komo, or mat of woven straw, which leaves its imprint on the exterior. The wrapped tofu is then boiled in soup stock. Voids within the tofu develop during the boiling process, allowing the soup stock flavor to penetrate and giving it a distinctive porous appearance.

Soft tofu can also be broken up or mashed and mixed with raw ingredients prior to being cooked. For example, Japanese ganmodoki is a mixture of chopped vegetables and mashed tofu. The mixture is bound together with starch and deep-fried. Chinese families sometimes make a steamed meatloaf or meatball dish from equal parts of coarsely mashed tofu and ground pork.

Japanese miso soup is frequently made with tofu.

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  Japanese-style silken tofu with soy sauce and a decorative carrot slice
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  Atsuage, thick fried tofu
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  Goma tofu, made from sesame seeds and kudzu starch
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  Yudofu, or tofu in hot water
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  Inarizushi, tofu skin with various fillings
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  Tofu in miso soup
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  Ganmodoki (がんもどき)
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  Local specialty komo-dofu on sale in a market in Takayama

South Korea

Dubu plays an important part in Korean cuisine. It is also used in many soups. Cubes of firm tofu can be seasoned with soy sauce, garlic, and other ingredients before pan-frying. A dish of tofu cubes simmered with similar spicy seasoning is called dubu-jorim. Dubu-kimchi features blanched tofu served in rectangular slices around the edges of a plate with pan-fried kimchi. This is a popular food to accompany alcoholic drinks (anju). Soft, unpressed sun-dubu is used as the main ingredient of sundubu-jjigae (soft tofu stew), while other soups and stews such as doenjang-guk (soybean paste soup), doenjang-jjigae (soybean paste stew), and kimchi-jjigae (kimchi stew) tend to have diced firm tofu in them. As in many other East Asian countries, tofu is also enjoyed in a hot pot dish called dubu-jeongol (tofu hot pot).

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  Pan-fried tofu served with seasoned soy sauce for dipping
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  Dubu-kimchi (blanched tofu served with stir-fried kimchi)
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  Boiled sun-dubu (extra soft tofu) served in ttukbaegi
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  Sundubu-jjigae (spicy soft tofu stew)
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  Dallae-doenjang-guk (soybean paste soup with wild chives and tofu)
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  Chilled tofu served with soy sauce seasonings
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  Crumbled tofu and mashed broccoli salad

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

In Indonesia, tofu is called tahu, a loanword from the Hokkien Chinese pronunciation of tofu (tāu-hū, 豆腐). In Indonesian markets, tofu is usually available in two forms: tahu putih or common white firm tofu; and tahu goreng or fried tofu that has developed a brown skin. Tahu yun yi or tahu Bandung is yellow tofu colored with turmeric.

A common cooking technique in many parts of East and Southeast Asia involves deep frying tofu in vegetable oil, sunflower oil, or canola oil. In Indonesia, it is usually fried in palm oil. Although pre-fried tofu is often sold cold, it is seldom eaten directly and requires additional cooking.

Popular Indonesian tofu dishes include tahu gejrot and kupat tahu. Tahu gejrot is tahu pong type of hollow fried tofu cut into small pieces, served with a thin, watery dressing made by blending palm sugar, vinegar, and sweet soy sauce, garnished with chili pepper, garlic, and shallot. Kupat tahu is slices of tofu served with ketupat rice cake, usually in peanut sauce dressing. Slices of tofu are usually mixed in gado-gado, ketoprak and siomay.

Bacem is a method of cooking tofu originating in Central Java. The tofu is boiled in coconut water, mixed with lengkuas (galangal), Indonesian bay leaves, coriander, shallot, garlic, tamarind and palm sugar. After the spicy coconut water has completely evaporated, the tofu is fried until it is golden brown. The result is moist but rather firm, sweet, and spicy tofu. This cooked tofu variant is commonly known as tahu bacem in Indonesian. Tahu bacem is commonly prepared along with tempeh and chicken.

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  Tahu putih (firm white tofu)
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  Tahu goreng (fried tofu) has brown skin.
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  Tahu sumedang with bird's eye chili
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  Tahu gejrot with thin light spicy sauce
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  Yellow tofu (tofu colored with turmeric) on top of laksa
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  Tahu bacem, tofu simmered in palm sugar and spices
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  Kembang tahu, served in sweet ginger syrup
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  Perkedel tahu goreng (Dutch-Indonesian food based on tofu and Dutch cooking technique) Frikadeller
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  Tahu isi, Indonesian fried tofu filled with vegetable, shrimp, or chicken served with bird eye chili and sweet shrimp paste
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  Tahu telor or Tahu tek, omelette tofu served with vegetable, krupuk, peanut sauce, shrimp paste, sweet soy sauce, and sambal
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  Kupat tahu, tofu served with rice cake, noodles and sweet soy sauce
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  Tahu campur, tofu soup with beef and tendon served in broth, soy sauce, shrimp paste, vegetable, krupuk and sambal
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  Tahu bakso or batagor, literally bakso (meatball), tahu (tofu), goreng (fried). Fried tofu filled with fish, tapioca starch, or meat.
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  Tahu tuna. fried tofu filled with grounded tuna. A delicacy from Pacitan, East Java.
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  Tahu gimbal. a tofu dish with peanut sauce and gimbal (shrimp fritter) from Semarang.
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  Tahu petis. fried tofu filled with petis (black colored shrimp paste sauce). Originated from Semarang, Central Java.
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  Tahu aci. fried tofu stuffed with tapioca starch. Originated from Tegal, Central Java.
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  Tau kua heci. a tofu dish with prawn. It is from Binjai, North Sumatra.
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  Tepo tahu. fried tofu with tepo (rice cake) and vegetables drizzled with peanut sauce. Originated from central western of East Java.
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  Tahu bulat. (round tofu). It was created in Tasikmalaya, West Java.
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  Tahu walik. a fried tofu from Banyuwangi, East Java.

Philippines

In the Philippines, the sweet delicacy tahô is made of fresh tofu with brown sugar syrup and sagó. The Malaysian and Singaporean version of taho or douhua is called tofufa or taufufa. Warm soft tofu is served in slices (created by scooping it from a wooden bucket with a flat spoon) in a bowl with either pandan-flavored sugar syrup or palm sugar syrup.

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  A cup of taho

Vietnam

In Vietnam, tofu pronounced đậu phụ and đậu hũ is a variety of soft tofu made and carried around in an earthenware jar.

Another popular dish with tofu is bún đậu mắm tôm, which is a dish with rice noodles served with tofu and shrimp paste.

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  Bún đậu mắm tôm
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  Đậu hũ
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  Đậu hũ rán (fried đậu hũ)
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  Đậu hũ sốt cà (đậu hũ with tomato sauce)
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  Đậu hũ in the Tất niên offering tray

Myanmar

Main article: Burmese tofu

Elsewhere

Generally, the firmer styles of tofu are used for kebabs, mock meats, and dishes requiring a consistency that holds together, while the softer styles can be used for desserts, soups, shakes, and sauces. Some people enjoy tofu made and prepared with chocolate and making it into pies and mousse along with other tofu desserts. This came about due to vegans and vegetarians avoiding the usage of items such as milk and eggs.

Firm Western tofu types can be barbecued since they hold together on a barbecue grill. These types are usually marinated overnight as the marinade does not easily penetrate the entire block of tofu. (Techniques to increase the penetration of marinades include stabbing repeatedly with a fork or freezing and thawing prior to marinating.) Grated firm Western tofu is sometimes used in conjunction with textured vegetable protein (TVP) as a meat substitute. Softer tofus are sometimes used as a dairy-free or low-calorie filler. Silken tofu may be used to replace cheese in certain dishes, such as lasagna. Tofu has also been fused into other cuisines in the West, for instance in Indian-style curries.

Tofu and soy protein can be industrially processed to match the textures and flavors of cheese, pudding, eggs, bacon, and similar products. Tofu's texture can also be altered by freezing, puréeing, and cooking. In the Americas, Europe, Australia and New Zealand, tofu is frequently associated with vegetarianism and veganism, as it is a source of non-animal protein.

In India tofu is used as a low-fat replacement for paneer, providing a similar texture.

Nutrition

Tofu (raw, regular)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	317 kJ (76 kcal)
Carbohydrates	1.9 g
Fat	4.8 g
Protein	8 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Thiamine (B1) 7% 0.08 mg Riboflavin (B2) 4% 0.05 mg Niacin (B3) 1% 0.19 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 1% 0.07 mg Vitamin B6 3% 0.05 mg Folate (B9) 4% 15 μg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 27% 350 mg Copper 21% 0.19 mg Iron 30% 5.4 mg Magnesium 7% 30 mg Manganese 26% 0.6 mg Phosphorus 8% 97 mg Potassium 4% 121 mg Sodium 0% 7 mg Zinc 7% 0.8 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	85 g
Link to USDA FoodData Central Entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Raw regular tofu is 85% water, 8% protein, 2% carbohydrates, and 5% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), tofu supplies 76 calories, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value) of calcium, copper, iron, and manganese (table).

Chemistry

Tofu is made from soy milk which is a turbid colloid liquid/solution. Tofu structure is related to soy milk components, particularly colloid components such as protein particles and oil globules. Protein particle content increases with the increase of the globulin ratio in the soybeans. Tofu varieties ensue from adding coagulants at various concentrations.

Proteins

The two main components of the soybean important in tofu making are the 11S component, containing glycinin, and the 7S subunit, containing hemagglutinins, lipoxygenases, b-amylase, and β-conglycinin. The major soy protein components, in the two fractions that make up 65–85% of the proteins in soybeans, include glycinin and β-conglycinin. The soybean protein consists of many different subunits, which are sensitive to heat, pH, and ionic strength and become unevenly distributed among soluble and particulate fractions due to hydrophilic and hydrophobic interaction because of the amino acid composition.

政治

豆腐は、政治家が対立候補を攻撃するために利用されてきた。2022年10月、[:en:[Suella Braverman|スエラ・ブレイバーマン]]は英国の下院で、「ガーディアンを読む、豆腐を食べるウォークラティ」を非難し、道路を妨害していると指摘した。2025年4月には、ドイツのキリスト教社会同盟党首マルクス・ゼーダーが、ドイツは「豆腐マニア」の代わりに、より多くのレバーケーゼ（一種のミートローフ）を楽しめるだろうと述べた。

関連項目

• Buddhist cuisine/ja
• Douhua/ja
• List of soy-based foods/ja
• List of tofu dishes/ja
• Los Angeles Tofu Festival/ja
• Oncom/ja
• Seitan/ja
• Tempeh/ja
• Veganism/ja
• Vegetarian cuisine/ja

外部リンク

• The Oxford companion to food Alan Davidson, Tom Jaine