Chili pepper/ja

様々な色とサイズのトウガラシ：緑色のバードアイチリ、黄色のマダム・ジャネット、赤色のカイエンペッパー

トウガラシ（英: chili peppers、チリまたはチリとも綴られる、from Classical Nahuatl chīlli nah）は、ナス科ナス属のトウガラシ属（Capsicum）に属する液果植物の品種で、その辛味のために栽培される。多くの料理でスパイスとして辛味を加えるために使用される。カプサイシンおよび関連するカプサイシノイドは、摂取時または局所塗布時にトウガラシにその辛味を与える。トウガラシは様々な辛さと風味を示す。この多様性により、チリパウダーには様々な種類があり、それぞれが独自の味と辛さレベルを提供している。

トウガラシは中央アメリカまたは南アメリカが原産で、メキシコで最初に栽培された。ヨーロッパの探検家たちは16世紀後半にコロンブス交換の一環としてトウガラシを旧世界に持ち帰り、それが世界中で食品や伝統医学のために様々な品種が栽培されるきっかけとなった。5つのトウガラシ属の種が広く栽培されている。C. annuum、C. baccatum、C. chinense、C. frutescens、そしてC. pubescensである。

歴史

起源

トウガラシ属の植物は現代のペルーとボリビアが原産であり、紀元前7,500年頃から人類の食生活の一部であった。これらはアメリカ大陸で最も古い栽培作物の一つである。トウガラシは、約6,000年前にメキシコ東中部で栽培され、その後、ペルー高地やボリビア、メキシコ中央部、アマゾンなど、アメリカ大陸の様々な場所で独自に栽培が始まった。これらは、これらの地域で栽培された最初の自家受粉作物の一つであった。

ペルーは栽培されるトウガラシ属の多様性が最も高く、コロンブス以前の時代に5つの栽培品種のすべてが導入され、栽培され、消費された多様化の中心地である。野生のトウガラシの多様性が最も高いのはボリビアで消費されている。ボリビアの消費者たちは、2つの基本的な形態を区別している。「ウピリカス」は、C. eximium、C. cardenasii、C. eshbaughii、C. caballeroiの地方品種を含む小型の丸い果実を持つ種で、「アリヴィヴィス」は、C. baccatum var. baccatumやC. chacoenseの品種を含む小型の細長い果実を持つ種である。

1804年の日本の農業百科事典『成形図説』からの挿絵

ヨーロッパへの伝播

詳細は「:en:Columbian exchange」を参照

クリストファー・コロンブスとその乗組員がカリブ海に到達した際、彼らはヨーロッパ人として初めてトウガラシ属の果実に出会った。彼らはそれを「ペッパー」と呼んだ。なぜなら、ヨーロッパで古くから知られていた黒胡椒（Piper nigrum）のように、他の食物とは異なる辛い味を持っていたからである。トウガラシは、コロンブスの航海に資金を提供したスペイン人によって、コロンブス交換と呼ばれる新世界と旧世界の間での大規模な植物と文化の交流の始まりに、初めてヨーロッパに持ち帰られた。トウガラシは1493年までにスペインの記録に登場する。コショウのつる植物が熱帯でのみ自然に生育するのとは異なり、トウガラシは温帯気候でも栽培可能であった。1500年代半ばまでに、それらはスペインで一般的な庭園植物となり、数多くの料理に取り入れられた。1526年までにイタリアに、1543年にはドイツに、そして1569年までにはバルカン半島に現れ、そこでパプリカに加工されるようになった。

世界各地への伝播

トウガラシがアフリカやアジアに急速に導入されたのは、おそらく16世紀のポルトガルやスペインの商人を通じてであったと考えられるが、詳細は記録されていない。ポルトガル人はまずアフリカやアラビアに導入し、その後ゴア、スリランカ、マラッカを含むアジアの植民地や交易拠点へと広めた。そこからトウガラシは、現地の交易や自然な分散を通じて、南アジアや東南アジア西部の隣接地域へと広まった。ほぼ同時期に、スペイン人もフィリピンにトウガラシを導入し、マニラ・ガレオン船による独占貿易を通じてメラネシア、ミクロネシア、その他の太平洋諸島へと広まった。16世紀後半の東アジアへの伝播はあまり明確ではないが、これもまた現地の交易か、あるいは広東や日本の長崎にあるポルトガルやスペインの交易港を通じてであった可能性が高い。中国の文献におけるトウガラシの最古の記述は1591年に遡るが、トウガラシは1570年代には中国に入っていたと考えられている。

栽培

トウガラシは、Capsicum属の種の、光沢のある鮮やかな色の果実である。植物学的には液果である。植物は品種にもよるが、小さく（20 to 60 centimetres (7.9 to 23.6 in)）、鉢植え、温室、または商業的にはポリトンネルでの栽培に適している。寒さから保護すれば、植物は多年生となる（C. annuumも同様）。果実は緑色、オレンジ色、赤色、紫色があり、形は丸くてこぶ状のものから滑らかで細長いものまで様々である。果実を緑色の未熟な状態で収穫すると、より多くの花が発達し、より多くの果実が収穫できる。植物に実を残すと味が辛くなり、完熟した色になるが、収穫量は減少する。

トウガラシの理想的な栽培条件は、暖かく、ローム質の土壌（理想的には21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F)）で、湿っているが水浸しではない日当たりの良い場所である。種子は暖かく、21 °C (70 °F)に近い温度でのみ発芽する。植物は暖かい条件を好むが、12 °C (54 °F)までの低温にも耐えることができ、寒さに弱い。花は自家受粉できる。しかし、極端に高い温度（30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F)）では、花粉が生存能力を失い、結実する可能性がはるかに低くなる。開花に関して、トウガラシは光周性に影響されない作物である。

トウガラシは、アブラムシ、温室ハダニ、温室コナジラミなどの害虫に弱く、これらはすべて植物の汁を吸って養分とする。一般的な病気には、ボトリティス・シネレアによる灰色カビ病があり、これは組織を腐敗させ、表面に茶灰色のかびを生じさせる。

• 栽培
• 
  若い植物
• 
  つぼみと花
• 
  畑の未熟なトウガラシ
• 
  ミャンマーの畑の熟したトウガラシ
• 
  アブラムシによって損傷した葉
• 
  種子のある熟したトウガラシ

Preparation

Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make a variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry.

• Drying chilies
• 
  Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
• 
  Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, India
• 
  New Mexico chiles dried on the plant in Mesilla, New Mexico

• 
  Sundried chili at Imogiri, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
• 
  Ristras of chili peppers drying in Arizona
• 
  Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan, Mexico
• 
  Smoke-dried chipotle

Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and chili powder, Fresh or dried chilies are used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes. Dried chilies are used to make chili oil, cooking oil infused with chili.

• Products
• 
  Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar
• 
  Chili powder, India
• 
  Brands of hot sauce, California
• 
  Chili oil

Annual production

Production of chillies and peppers, green – 2020

Region	(Millions of tons)
China	16.7
Mexico	2.8
Indonesia	2.8
Turkey	2.6
Spain	1.5
World	36.1
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations

In 2020, 36 million tonnes of green chilies and peppers (counted as any Capsicum or Pimenta fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total.

Species and cultivars

For a more comprehensive list, see List of Capsicum cultivars.

Species of Capsicum that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified phylogenetic tree, with examples of cultivars: The World Vegetable Center has one of the largest collection of chili peppers in the world. It has researched climate change resistant cultivars.

Capsicum	C. annuum: bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeño, Thai, chiltepin, New Mexico chile       C. frutescens: tabasco, malagueta, labuyo, piri piri, kambuzi     C. chinense: hottest peppers, e.g. naga, habanero, datil, Scotch bonnet         C. baccatum: aji       C. pubescens: rocoto, chile de caballo       C. eximium       C. lycianthoides

• Cultivars
• 
  Cayenne peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum annuum
• 
  Tabasco peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum frutescens, fruits pointing upwards
• 
  Habanero peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum chinense
• 
  Cubanelle peppers,
  United States
• 
  Scotch bonnets,
  Caribbean
• 
  Bird's eye chilies,
  Thailand
• 
  Cheongyang peppers,
  South Korea

• 
  Black Pearl cultivar of C. annuum
• 
  Choricero,
  Spain
• 
  Purple chilies,
  Myanmar

Intensity

Capsaicin

Main article: Capsaicin

Chemical structure

Space-filling model

Capsaicin, the principal molecule that gives chili its heat

The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure.

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators. A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a hemipteran bug, the risk of disease caused by a Fusarium fungus carried by the insects is reduced. As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds.

Intensity range of commonly used cultivars

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper	0 SHU
Fresno, jalapeño	3,500–10,000 SHU
Cayenne	30,000–50,000 SHU
Piri piri, bird's eye	50,000–100,000 SHU
Habanero, Scotch bonnet	100,000–350,000 SHU

Hottest by country

Main article: Hottest chili pepper

The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:

Country	Type	Heat (SHU)
United States	Pepper X	2.69M
Wales	Dragon's Breath	2.48M
United States	Carolina Reaper	2.2M
Trinidad and Tobago	Trinidad moruga scorpion	2.0M
India	Ghost pepper (Bhut jolokia)	1.58M
Trinidad and Tobago	Trinidad Scorpion Butch T	1.46M
England	Naga Viper	1.38M
England	Infinity chili	1.07M

As food

Nutritional value

Peppers, hot chili, red, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	166 kJ (40 kcal)
Carbohydrates	8.8 g
Sugars	5.3 g
Dietary fiber	1.5 g
Fat	0.4 g
Protein	1.9 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Vitamin A equiv. beta-Carotene 5% 48 μg 5% 534 μg Vitamin B6 30% 0.51 mg Vitamin C 160% 144 mg Minerals Quantity %DV† Iron 6% 1 mg Magnesium 5% 23 mg Potassium 11% 322 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	88 g
Capsaicin	0.01g – 6 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories, and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B₆.

Pungency

Due to their unique pungency (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian, Yoruba, New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century Asian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions. Chili is a key ingredient in many curries, providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether.

Cooking

Chilies with a low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked.

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruits. They are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola. In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.

Regional cuisines

Chilies are present in many cuisines. In Peru, Papa a la huancaina is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and aji amarillo chilies. In Thailand, kaeng tai pla fish curry is flavoured with a tai pla sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies. In Jamaica, jerk chicken is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and allspice. Goan vindaloo curry uses the extremely hot ghost pepper or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish". In Bhutan, ema datshi, entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese, is the national dish. Many Mexican dishes use chilies of different types, including the jalapeño, poblano, habanero, serrano, chipotle, ancho, pasilla, guajillo, de árbol, cascabel and mulato. These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy mole sauce and Mexican salsa sauces. and Obe ata.

• Dishes
• 
  Mexican lamb chops with guajillo chili sauce and charro beans
• 
  Lamb Madras curry
• 
  Pickled chili in India
• 
  Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
• 
  Filipino tinola chicken soup with labuyo chili leaves

Other uses

Ornamental plants

Black pearl pepper, an ornamental variety

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

• Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves
• Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits
• Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell

Constrained risk-taking

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.

Topical use and health research

Capsaicin, the pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain. A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

Chemical irritants

Main articles: Pepper spray and Chili grenade

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds. Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin due to their large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system. The smell of chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific pain receptor. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources.

Etymology and spelling

The English word is from Classical Nahuatl chīlli with the same meaning. The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile. While pepper originally meant the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster record both usages.

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all recognized by dictionaries.

• Chili is widely used in English of the United States
• Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries, and some parts of the United States.
• Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli), and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in former British colonies such as India and Sri Lanka.

Safety

The volatile oil in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts. Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation, sweating, vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.

Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including Auramine O, Chrysoidine, Sudan stains I to IV, Para red, and Rhodamine B to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by liquid chromatography used together with mass spectrometry.

In popular culture

Peperoncino chilies in Italy, advertised as an aphrodisiac

The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist José de Acosta noted the supposed aphrodisiac power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's spiritual health. In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle."

関連項目

• 食のタブー – 文化によってはトウガラシを含む
• ハッチ (ニューメキシコ州) – 「世界のチリ首都」として知られる
• チョコレートの歴史 – マヤ族が挽いたトウガラシと混ぜて飲んでいた
• 国際グリーン&レッドチリ愛好家協会 – トウガラシの普及を目的とした団体
• ペッパースープ
• サルサソース
• スイートチリソース – 料理に甘くマイルドな辛味を加える調味料

外部リンク

• Plant Cultures: トウガラシの植物学、歴史、用途
• ニューメキシコ州立大学チリペッパー研究所
• トウガラシ：古代作物の革新的な利用法
• トウガラシ：新世界のスパイス (ヘルマン・オクタビオ・ロペス・リケルムによる生物学、栄養、文化、医学に関する記事。スペイン語)
• ホットペッパーリスト スコヴィル値（SHU）による辛さ順のトウガラシ品種リスト