History of Indian cuisine: Difference between revisions

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The '''history of Indian cuisine''' consists of cuisine of the [[Indian subcontinent]], which is rich and diverse. The diverse climate in the region, ranging from deep tropical to alpine, has also helped considerably broaden the set of ingredients readily available to the many schools of cookery in India. In many cases, food has become a marker of religious and social identity, with varying taboos and preferences (for instance, a segment of the [[Jainism|Jain]] population consume no roots or subterranean vegetable; see [[Jain vegetarianism]]) which has also driven these groups to innovate extensively with the food sources that are deemed acceptable.

One strong influence over Indian foods is the longstanding [[vegetarianism]] within sections of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Jainism|Jain]] communities. At 31%, slightly less than a third of Indians are vegetarians.

==Historic developments==

Indian cuisine reflects an [[History of India|8,000-year history]] of various groups and cultures interacting with the [[Indian subcontinent]], leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day India. Later, trade with British and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine.

===Prehistory and Indus Valley Civilization exchanges with Sumeria and Mesopotamia===

{{See also|Meluhha|Indus–Mesopotamia relations|Indian maritime history}}

After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] (IV) seems to have occurred as a consequence of the [[Neolithic Revolution]] and the diffusion of agriculture.{{refn|group=note|According to [[Ahmad Hasan Dani]], professor emeritus at [[Quaid-e-Azam University]], [[Islamabad]], the discovery of Mehrgarh "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilisation […] There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life.", ref "Chandler 34–42"}} Around 7000 BCE, agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley, and wheat and barley began to be grown. [[Sesame]] and [[zebu|humped cattle]] were domesticated in the local farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.

After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] (IV) seems to have occurred as a consequence of the [[Neolithic Revolution]] and the diffusion of agriculture. Around 7000 BCE, agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley, and wheat and barley began to be grown. [[Sesame]] and [[zebu|humped cattle]] were domesticated in the local farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.

By 3000 BCE, [[turmeric]], [[cardamom]], [[black pepper]] and [[Mustard plant|mustard]] were harvested in India.

From Around 2350 BCE the evidence for imports from the Indus to [[Ur]] in [[Mesopotamia]] have been found, as well as [[Clove]] heads which are thought to originate from the [[Moluccas]] in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] were found in a 2nd millennium BC site in [[Terqa]]. [[Akkadian Empire]] records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from [[Meluhha]] by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley Civilization.

===Vedic and vegetarian Buddhist exchanges with Roman empire and influence on Southeast Asia===

{{Main | Ayurveda | Buddhist vegetarianism | Indian Ocean trade | Silk Road | Indo-Roman trade relations | History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia | l6 = Indian influence on Southeast Asia | Filipino_cuisine#Indianised | l7= Indian influence on Filipino cuisine }}

The ancient [[Hindu]] text ''[[Mahabharata]]'' mentions rice and vegetable cooked together, and the word "pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancient [[Sanskrit]] works, such as [[Yājñavalkya Smṛti]]. [[Ayurveda]], ancient Indian system of wellness, deals with holistic approach to wellness, and it includes food, [[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]] {meditation} and [[yoga]].

[[Thai cuisine]] was [[History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia#Thailand|influenced]] by [[Indian cuisine]] as recorded by the Thai monk [[Buddhadasa]] Bhikku in his writing ‘India's Benevolence to Thailand’. He wrote that Thai people learned how to use [[Ayurveda|spices]] in their food in various ways from Indians. Thais also obtained the methods of making [[Ayurveda|herbal medicines]] (Ayurveda) from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of family [[Clusiaceae|Guttiferae]], kanika or [[Parijata|harsinghar]], phikun or ''[[Mimusops elengi]]'' and bunnak or the [[Mesua ferrea|rose chestnut]] etc. were brought from India.

[[Filipino cuisine]], found throughout the [[Philippines]] archipelago, has been [[History of the Philippines#Indianised|historically influenced by the Indian cuisine]].

===Cuisine exchange with Central Asian and Islamic world===

Later, arrivals from [[Arabia]], Central Asia, and centuries of trade relations and cultural exchange resulted in a significant influence on each region's cuisines, such as the adoption of the ''[[tandoor]]'' in Middle East which had originated in northwestern India.

===Cuisine exchange during European colonial period===

{{ see also | Colonial India | Portuguese India | British raj | Chronology of European exploration of Asia | l4= European exploration of Asia | Girmityas }}

The [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] and [[British India|British]] during their rule introduced cooking techniques such as baking, and foods from the [[New World]] and Europe. The [[New World crops|new-world vegetables]] popular in cuisine from the Indian subcontinent include [[tomato]], [[potato]], [[sweet potatoes]], [[peanut]]s, [[Squash (plant)|squash]], and [[Capsicum|chilli]]. Most New world vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, [[Amaranth]], peanuts and [[cassava]] based [[Sago]] are allowed on Hindu fasting days. Cauliflower was introduced by the British in 1822. In the late 18th/early 19th century, an autobiography of a Scottish [[Robert Lindsay (Sylhet)|Robert Lindsay]] mentions a [[Sylhetis|Sylheti]] man called Saeed Ullah cooking a curry for Lindsay's family. This is possibly the oldest record of Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom.

==Contemporary developments==

{{see also|Greater India|Indosphere|Indianization of Southeast Asia|History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia}}

In 2019, according to data released by United Nations, 17.5 million of [[Non-resident Indian and Overseas Citizen of India|overseas Indians]] formed the world's largest [[diaspora]], including 3.4 million in UAE, 2.7 million in USA, and 2.4 million in Saudi Arabia. Indian migration has spread the culinary traditions of the subcontinent throughout the world. These cuisines have been adapted to local tastes, and have also affected local cuisines. [[Curry]]'s international appeal has been compared to that of [[pizza]]. Indian tandoor dishes such as ''[[chicken tikka]]'' enjoy widespread popularity.

The UK's first Indian restaurant, the [[Hindoostanee Coffee House]], opened in 1810. By 2003, there were as many as 10,000 restaurants serving Indian cuisine in England and [[Wales]] alone; 90% of Indian restaurants in the UK are run by [[British Bangladeshis]]. According to Britain's [[Food Standards Agency]], the Indian food industry in the United Kingdom is worth 3.2 billion [[Pound sterling|pounds]], accounts for two-thirds of all eating out and serves about 2.5 million customers every week. A survey by ''[[The Washington Post]]'' in 2007 stated that more than 1,200 Indian food products had been introduced into the United States since 2000.

Indian cuisine is very popular in Southeast Asia, due to the strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence in the region. Indian cuisine has had considerable influence on Malaysian cooking styles and also enjoys popularity in Singapore. There are numerous North and South Indian restaurants in Singapore, mostly in [[Little India, Singapore|Little India]]. Singapore is also known for [[fusion cuisine]] combining traditional [[Singaporean cuisine]] with Indian influences. Fish head curry, for example, is a local creation. Indian influence on [[Malay cuisine]] dates to the 19th century. Other cuisines which borrow inspiration from Indian cooking styles include [[Cambodian cuisine|Cambodian]], [[Lao cuisine|Lao]], [[Filipino cuisine|Filipino]], [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]], [[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesian]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], and [[Burmese cuisine|Burmese]] cuisines. The spread of vegetarianism in other parts of Asia is often credited to Hindu and Buddhist practices.

A 2019 research paper by US economist [[Joel Waldfogel]], based on travel data from [[TripAdvisor]], affirmed India's [[soft power]] which ranked Indian cuisine fourth most popular. Italian, Japanese & Chinese food being top 3. Indian cuisine is especially most popular in United Kingdom, South Korea, Thailand, Japan, Germany, France and US. In another 2019 survey of 25,000 people cross 34 countries, the largest fans of India cuisine who have tried it are the Indians (93%), British (84%), Singaporeans (77%), Norwegians (75%), Australians (74%), French (71%), Finnish (71%), Malaysians (70%), Indonesians (49%), Vietnamese (44%), Thai (27%), and mainland Chinese (26%).

The popularity of Indian cuisine has been attributed to a large number of distinct diaspora and fusion Indian cuisines such as [[Indian Chinese cuisine]], [[Malaysian Indian cuisine]], [[Indian Singaporean cuisine]] (based on Tamil cuisine), and [[Anglo-Indian cuisine]] (developed during the British Raj in India with adoption of western dishes with Indian ingredients).

==Gallery==

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</gallery>

==See also==

* [[Indian cookbooks]]

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[[Category:History of Indian cuisine| ]]

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[[Category:South Asian cuisine]]

</translate>

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+<languages />
+<translate>
+<!--T:1-->
 {{Indian cuisine}}
 {{Culture of India}}
@@ Line 5: / Line 8: @@
 The '''history of Indian cuisine''' consists of cuisine of the [[Indian subcontinent]], which is rich and diverse. The diverse climate in the region, ranging from deep tropical to alpine, has also helped considerably broaden the set of ingredients readily available to the many schools of cookery in India. In many cases, food has become a marker of religious and social identity, with varying taboos and preferences (for instance, a segment of the [[Jainism|Jain]] population consume no roots or subterranean vegetable; see [[Jain vegetarianism]]) which has also driven these groups to innovate extensively with the food sources that are deemed acceptable.
+<!--T:2-->
 One strong influence over Indian foods is the longstanding [[vegetarianism]] within sections of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Jainism|Jain]] communities. At 31%, slightly less than a third of Indians are vegetarians.
+<!--T:3-->
 ==Historic developments==
 Indian cuisine reflects an [[History of India|8,000-year history]] of various groups and cultures interacting with the [[Indian subcontinent]], leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day India. Later, trade with British and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine.
+<!--T:4-->
 ===Prehistory and Indus Valley Civilization exchanges with Sumeria and Mesopotamia===
 {{See also|Meluhha|Indus–Mesopotamia relations|Indian maritime history}}
-After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] (IV) seems to have occurred as a consequence of the [[Neolithic Revolution]] and the diffusion of agriculture.{{refn|group=note|According to [[Ahmad Hasan Dani]], professor emeritus at [[Quaid-e-Azam University]], [[Islamabad]], the discovery of Mehrgarh "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilisation […] There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life.", ref "Chandler 34–42"}} Around 7000 BCE, agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley, and wheat and barley began to be grown. [[Sesame]] and [[zebu|humped cattle]] were domesticated in the local farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.
+<!--T:5-->
+After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] (IV) seems to have occurred as a consequence of the [[Neolithic Revolution]] and the diffusion of agriculture. Around 7000 BCE, agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley, and wheat and barley began to be grown. [[Sesame]] and [[zebu|humped cattle]] were domesticated in the local farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.
+<!--T:6-->
 By 3000 BCE, [[turmeric]], [[cardamom]], [[black pepper]] and [[Mustard plant|mustard]] were harvested in India.
+<!--T:7-->
 From Around 2350 BCE the evidence for imports from the Indus to [[Ur]] in [[Mesopotamia]] have been found, as well as [[Clove]] heads which are thought to originate from the [[Moluccas]] in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] were found in a 2nd millennium BC site in [[Terqa]]. [[Akkadian Empire]] records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from [[Meluhha]] by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley Civilization.
+<!--T:8-->
 ===Vedic and vegetarian Buddhist exchanges with Roman empire and influence on Southeast Asia===
 {{anchor |  Vedic | Hindu }}
 {{Main | Ayurveda | Buddhist vegetarianism | Indian Ocean trade | Silk Road | Indo-Roman trade relations | History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia | l6 = Indian influence on Southeast Asia | Filipino_cuisine#Indianised | l7= Indian influence on Filipino cuisine }}
+<!--T:9-->
 The ancient [[Hindu]] text ''[[Mahabharata]]'' mentions rice and vegetable cooked together, and the word "pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancient [[Sanskrit]]  works, such as [[Yājñavalkya Smṛti]]. [[Ayurveda]], ancient Indian system of wellness, deals with holistic approach to wellness, and it includes food, [[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]] {meditation} and [[yoga]].
+<!--T:10-->
 [[Thai cuisine]] was [[History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia#Thailand|influenced]] by [[Indian cuisine]] as recorded by the Thai monk [[Buddhadasa]] Bhikku in his writing ‘India's Benevolence to Thailand’. He wrote that Thai people learned how to use [[Ayurveda|spices]] in their food in various ways from Indians. Thais also obtained the methods of making [[Ayurveda|herbal medicines]] (Ayurveda) from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of family [[Clusiaceae|Guttiferae]], kanika or [[Parijata|harsinghar]], phikun or ''[[Mimusops elengi]]'' and bunnak or the [[Mesua ferrea|rose chestnut]] etc. were brought from India.
+<!--T:11-->
 [[Filipino cuisine]], found throughout the [[Philippines]] archipelago, has been [[History of the Philippines#Indianised|historically influenced by the Indian cuisine]].
+<!--T:12-->
 ===Cuisine exchange with Central Asian and Islamic world===
 {{ see also | Central Asians in ancient Indian literature }}
+<!--T:13-->
 Later, arrivals from [[Arabia]], Central Asia, and centuries of trade relations and cultural exchange resulted in a significant influence on each region's cuisines, such as the adoption of the ''[[tandoor]]'' in Middle East which had originated in northwestern India.
+<!--T:14-->
 ===Cuisine exchange during European colonial period===
 {{ see also | Colonial India | Portuguese India | British raj | Chronology of European exploration of Asia | l4= European exploration of Asia | Girmityas }}
+<!--T:15-->
 The [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] and [[British India|British]] during their rule introduced cooking techniques such as baking, and foods from the [[New World]] and Europe. The [[New World crops|new-world vegetables]] popular in cuisine from the Indian subcontinent include [[tomato]], [[potato]], [[sweet potatoes]], [[peanut]]s, [[Squash (plant)|squash]], and [[Capsicum|chilli]]. Most New world vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, [[Amaranth]], peanuts and [[cassava]] based [[Sago]] are allowed on Hindu fasting days. Cauliflower was introduced by the British in 1822. In the late 18th/early 19th century, an autobiography of a Scottish [[Robert Lindsay (Sylhet)|Robert Lindsay]] mentions a [[Sylhetis|Sylheti]] man called Saeed Ullah cooking a curry for Lindsay's family. This is possibly the oldest record of Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom.
+<!--T:16-->
 ==Contemporary developments==
 {{see also|Greater India|Indosphere|Indianization of Southeast Asia|History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia}}
+<!--T:17-->
 In 2019, according to data released by United Nations, 17.5 million of [[Non-resident Indian and Overseas Citizen of India|overseas Indians]] formed the world's largest [[diaspora]], including 3.4 million in UAE, 2.7 million in USA, and 2.4 million in Saudi Arabia. Indian migration has spread the culinary traditions of the subcontinent throughout the world. These cuisines have been adapted to local tastes, and have also affected local cuisines. [[Curry]]'s international appeal has been compared to that of [[pizza]]. Indian tandoor dishes such as ''[[chicken tikka]]'' enjoy widespread popularity.
+<!--T:18-->
 The UK's first Indian restaurant, the [[Hindoostanee Coffee House]], opened in 1810. By 2003, there were as many as 10,000 restaurants serving Indian cuisine in England and [[Wales]] alone; 90% of Indian restaurants in the UK are run by [[British Bangladeshis]]. According to Britain's [[Food Standards Agency]], the Indian food industry in the United Kingdom is worth 3.2 billion [[Pound sterling|pounds]], accounts for two-thirds of all eating out and serves about 2.5 million customers every week. A survey by ''[[The Washington Post]]'' in 2007 stated that more than 1,200 Indian food products had been introduced into the United States since 2000.
+<!--T:19-->
 Indian cuisine is very popular in Southeast Asia, due to the strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence in the region. Indian cuisine has had considerable influence on Malaysian cooking styles and also enjoys popularity in Singapore. There are numerous North and South Indian restaurants in Singapore, mostly in [[Little India, Singapore|Little India]]. Singapore is also known for [[fusion cuisine]] combining traditional [[Singaporean cuisine]] with Indian influences. Fish head curry, for example, is a local creation. Indian influence on [[Malay cuisine]] dates to the 19th century. Other cuisines which borrow inspiration from Indian cooking styles include [[Cambodian cuisine|Cambodian]], [[Lao cuisine|Lao]], [[Filipino cuisine|Filipino]], [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]], [[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesian]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], and [[Burmese cuisine|Burmese]] cuisines. The spread of vegetarianism in other parts of Asia is often credited to Hindu and Buddhist practices.
+<!--T:20-->
 A 2019 research paper by US economist [[Joel Waldfogel]], based on travel data from [[TripAdvisor]], affirmed India's [[soft power]] which ranked Indian cuisine fourth most popular. Italian, Japanese & Chinese food being top 3. Indian cuisine is especially most popular in United Kingdom, South Korea, Thailand, Japan, Germany, France and US. In another 2019 survey of 25,000 people cross 34 countries, the largest fans of India cuisine who have tried it are the Indians (93%), British (84%), Singaporeans (77%), Norwegians (75%), Australians (74%), French (71%), Finnish (71%), Malaysians (70%), Indonesians (49%), Vietnamese (44%), Thai (27%), and mainland Chinese (26%).
+<!--T:21-->
 The popularity of Indian cuisine has been attributed to a large number of distinct diaspora and fusion Indian cuisines such as [[Indian Chinese cuisine]], [[Malaysian Indian cuisine]], [[Indian Singaporean cuisine]] (based on Tamil cuisine), and [[Anglo-Indian cuisine]] (developed during the British Raj in India with adoption of western dishes with Indian ingredients).
+<!--T:22-->
 ==Gallery==
 <gallery widths="200" heights="200">
@@ Line 59: / Line 83: @@
 </gallery>
+<!--T:23-->
 ==See also==
 * [[Indian cookbooks]]
@@ Line 64: / Line 89: @@
 {{Portal bar|Food|History}}
+<!--T:24-->
 {{Cuisines}}
+<!--T:25-->
 {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Indian Cuisine}}
 [[Category:History of Indian cuisine| ]]
@@ Line 72: / Line 99: @@
 [[Category:South Asian cuisine]]
 {{二次利用|date=11 May 2025, at 05:07}}
+</translate>