Food and drink prohibitions/ja: Difference between revisions

Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's [[Cavally River]] included [[chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes''), [[Diana monkey]] (''Cercopithecus diana''), [[putty-nosed monkey]] (''C. nictitans''), [[lesser spot-nosed monkey]] (''C. petaurista''), [[Campbell's mona monkey]] (''C. campbelli''), [[sooty mangabey]] (''Cercocebus atys''), [[king colobus]] (''Colobus polykomos''), [[olive colobus]] (''Procolobus verus''), [[western red colobus]] (''P. badius'').

[[File:Gorilla gorilla09.jpg|thumb|A gorilla in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008]]

Between 1983 and 2002, the [[Gabon]] populations of [[western gorilla]] (''Gorilla gorilla'') and [[common chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes'') were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for [[logging]] purposes.

In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked [[bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') carcasses were observed in [[Basankusu]] in the [[Province of Équateur]] in the Congo Basin.

Some people consider consumption of primates to be close to [[human cannibalism]] due to monkeys and apes being close relatives of [[human being]]s.

===Kangaroo===

[[Kangaroo meat]] has long been a significant part of some [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous Australian]] diets. Kangaroo meat was legalised for human consumption in South Australia in 1980, though in other states it could only be sold as pet food until 1993. Kangaroos, along with most other native Australian animals, are protected under Australian law on a state and federal level, but licences to kill kangaroos can be acquired for hunting or culling purposes. Though kangaroo meat was once unpopular with modern Australians, it has become a lot more popular in recent years due to its reputation as a low-fat and low-emission meat, and can be found in most supermarkets.

[[Kangaroo meat]] is illegal in [[California]]. The ban was first imposed in 1971; a moratorium was put in place in 2007, allowing the importation of the meat, but the ban was re-implemented in 2015. Kangaroo meat is also not considered biblically [[kosher]] by [[Jews]] or [[Seventh-Day Adventism|Adventists]]. However, it is considered [[halal]] according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.

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===Living animals===

[[File:Oysters p1040741.jpg|thumb|''Raw oysters'', which are still alive, presented on a plate.]]

[[File:Ikizukuri.jpg|thumb|[[Ikizukuri]], live fish served as sashimi.]]

Islamic law, Judaic law (including [[Seven Laws of Noah|Noahide Law]]), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, [[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin]] 59a). However, in the case of a ''[[ben pekuah]]'' where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply. Eating oysters raw, [[ikizukuri]], and other similar cases would be considered a violation of this in Jewish law.

Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include [[eating live seafood]], such as "raw [[oyster]] on the half shell" and [[ikizukuri]] (live fish). [[Sashimi]] using live animals has been banned in some countries.

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===Offal===

[[File:MarketScene.jpg|thumb|Heads, [[Brain (as food)|brains]], trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.]]

[[File:Khash 1.jpg|thumb|[[Kale Pache]], a traditional soup made with lamb's head (including brain, eyes and tongues) and hooves in [[Iran]].]]

[[Offal]] is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as [[sweetbread]]s and [[kidney]]. Offal is a traditional part of many [[European cuisine|European]] and [[Asian cuisine]]s, including such dishes as the [[steak and kidney pie]] in the United Kingdom or [[Callos|''callos a la madrileña'']] in Spain. [[Haggis]] has been [[Scotland]]'s [[national dish]] since the time of [[Robert Burns]]. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called [["''buchada''"]], made with goats' stomach.

Except for heart, [[Beef tongue|tongue (beef)]], [[liver]] (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural [[sausage]] [[Casing (sausage)|casings]], organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example, [[tripe]] as ''[[Menudo (soup)|menudo]]'' or ''[[sopa de mondongo|mondongo]]'' among [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latinos and Hispanos]], [[chitterlings]] in the [[Southern United States]], [[scrapple]] on the Eastern Seaboard, [[fried-brain sandwich]]es in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], and beef [[testicle]]s called [[Rocky Mountain oysters]] or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served as ''huevos de toro'' or 'bull's eggs'.

In some regions, such as the [[European Union]], [[Brain (food)|brains]] and other organs which can transmit [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the [[food chain]] as [[specified risk material]]s.

Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient [[Cheesemaker|cheesemaking]] techniques utilize stomachs (which contain [[rennet]]) for turning [[milk]] into [[cheese]], a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that the ''process'' by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.

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===Poppy seed===

{{main|Poppy seed}}

[[Poppy seed]]s are used as condiments in many cultures, but the trace amounts of [[morphine]] and [[codeine]] present in the seeds can lead to a [[false positive]] when administering a drug test. In [[Singapore]], poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by the [[Central Narcotics Bureau]] (CNB).

===Pigs/pork===

{{Main|Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork}}

[[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) data reports [[pork]] as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden by Islam, Judaism and certain [[Christian denomination]]s, such as [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g. [[Qur'an]] 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115, and Deuteronomy 14:8. Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: the [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and [[Babylonia]]ns. In some instances, the taboo extended beyond eating pork, and it was also taboo to touch or even look at pigs.

The original reason for this taboo is debated. [[Maimonides]] seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eat [[feces]]. In the 19th century, some people attributed the pig taboo in the [[Middle East]] to the danger of the parasite [[trichinosis|trichina]], but this explanation is now out of favour. [[James George Frazer]] suggested that, in ancient Israel, Egypt and Syria, the pig was originally a sacred animal, which for that reason could not be eaten or touched; the taboo survived to a time when the pig was no longer regarded as sacred, and was therefore explained by reference to its being unclean.

More recently, [[Marvin Harris]] posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates because they require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice. Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are [[Omnivore|omnivorous]], not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. [[Mary Douglas]] has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.

While [[meat alternatives|pork alternatives]] (for example, by [[Impossible Foods]]) do not contain actual pork meat, some conservative religious groups, such as Islam, regard it as forbidden, similar to its meat-based counterpart as it is the said ''haram'' or non-kosher product the pork alternative is trying to mimic and present. Lab-grown pork might also be considered haram or non-kosher.

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===Rabbit===

{{Main|Rabbit#As food and clothing}}

[[File:Rabbit edit.jpg|thumb|[[Cottontail rabbit]]]]

The book of Leviticus in the [[Bible]] classifies the [[rabbit]] as [[unclean animals|unclean]] because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants). The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam, and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient in ''[[mulukhiya|molokheyya]]''), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence of [[Twelvers|Twelver]] Shia Islam.

'''Absinthe'''

[[Absinthe]] was made illegal in the United States in 1912 because of its high alcohol percentage.  Absinthe was legalized again in 2007. It was rumored to have been a cause for hallucinations, giving it the nickname “The Green Fairy.”

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===Blood===

{{See also|Blood as food}}

[[File:Dinuguan.jpg|thumb|A bowl of ''[[dinuguan]]'', a Filipino stew with pork blood]]

Some religions prohibit drinking or eating blood or food made from blood. In Islam the consumption of blood is prohibited (''[[Haram]]''). ''[[Halal]]'' animals should be properly slaughtered to drain out the blood. Unlike in other traditions, this is not because blood is revered or holy, but simply because blood is considered [[ritually unclean]] or ''[[Najis]]'', with certain narratives prescribing [[Ritual purification|ablutions]] (in the case of no availability of water) if contact is made with it. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) is [[Salting (food)|salted]] to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus, that since "the life of the animal is in the blood" or "blood was reserved for the forgiveness of sins and thus reserved for God", no person may eat (or drink) the blood. [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] and [[Jehovah's Witness]]es prohibit eating or drinking any blood.

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According to the Bible, blood is only to be used for special or sacred purposes in connection with worship ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] chapters 12, 24, 29, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:29 and [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]). In the [[Christianity in the 1st century|first century]], Christians, both former Jews (the [[Jewish Christians]]), and new [[Gentile]] converts, were in dispute as to which particular features of [[Mosaic law]] were to be retained and upheld by them. The [[Apostolic Decree]] suggested that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood:

{{quote|For it seemed good to the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things;

That ye abstain from meats offered to [[idolatry|idols]], and from blood, and from things strangled, and from [[fornication]]: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well.|}}