Food and drink prohibitions/ja: Difference between revisions

The [[Kalika Purana]] distinguishes ''bali'' (sacrifice) and ''mahabali'' (great sacrifice), for the ritual killing of [[goat]]s, [[elephant]], respectively, though the reference to humans in [[Shakti]] theology is symbolic and done in [[effigy]] in modern times.

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{{Main|Fish as food}}

{{quote|Speak not to me with a mouth that eats fish|Somali nomad taunt}}

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Among the [[Somali people]], most [[Demographics of Somalia|clans]] have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.

There are taboos on eating fish among many upland [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[Farmer|agriculturalists]] (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to [[East Africa]], though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where [[Cushitic languages]] are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] and [[Semitic languages]] do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen. The few [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] and [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where [[Kingdom of Kush|Cushites]] appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the [[tsetse fly]] and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by [[Nomadic pastoralism|wandering pastoralists]], the principal fish-avoiders. [[Zambia]] and [[Mozambique]]'s Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.

There is also another center of fish avoidance in [[Southern Africa]], among mainly [[Bantu languages|Bantu speakers]]. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the [[Khoisan]]. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.

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Certain species of fish, such as the freshwater [[eel]] ([[Anguillidae]]) and all species of [[catfish]], are also forbidden by Judaism. Although they live in water, they appear to have no scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this. Catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni ''madh'hab''. The Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids all species of fish that do not have scales, as well as all shell fish species except prawns.

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Many tribes of the [[Southwestern United States]], including the [[Navajo people|Navajo]], [[Apache]], and [[Zuni people|Zuñi]], have a taboo against fish and other aquatic animals, including [[waterfowl]].

The people of the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] have a taboo against the consumption against fish (as well as birds including waterfowl, though the fish taboo has endured the most through generations). According to a lecture by Grant Manyheads of [[Blackfoot Crossing|Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park]], the Blackfoot's cuisine was based in a belief that only certain animals, those with four legs and hooves and which grazed on grass, were seen as "clean" and thus suitable for consumption. This meant that any other animals, including fish, birds (especially waterfowl), and clawed animals such as bears and dogs or wolves, were not considered suitable or clean enough to eat. However, this taboo was broken in times of need and starvation. Breaking the taboo was seen as an especially desperate act among the Blackfoot, but was not seen to carry any particular religious or spiritual repercussions, hence the allowance of breaking the taboo out of desperation.

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===Foie gras===

[[Foie gras]], the fatty liver of geese that have been force-fed according to French law, has been the subject of [[Foie gras controversy|controversy]] and prohibitions exist in different parts of the world. In July 2014, India banned the import of foie gras making it the first and only country in the world to do so, causing dismay among some of the nation's chefs. In Australia, the production of foie gras is currently forbidden, though it is legal to import it. In August 2003, Argentina banned foie gras production as it is considered a mistreatment or an act of cruelty to animals. In 2023 foie gras production was banned in the [[Flemish Region]] of Belgium.

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===Animal fetuses===

Many countries observe this as a delicacy but it is a taboo in most countries. Considered as corpses, fetuses of goats and sheep are a delicacy in Anglo-Indian culture, despite being taboo in both parent cultures (English and Indian). This Anglo-Indian dish is known as "[[kutti pi]]" (fetus bag).

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===Fungi===

Vedic [[Brahmins]], Gaudiya [[Vaishnavas]], [[tantriks]] and some [[Buddhist]] priests abstain from [[Fungus|fungi]], which are eschewed as they grow at night.

In [[Iceland]], rural parts of Sweden and Western Finland, although not taboo, [[edible mushroom|mushrooms]] were not widely eaten before the Second World War. They were viewed as food for [[cow]]s and were also associated with the stigma of being wartime and [[famine food|poverty food]]. This is in contrast to the days of the [[Roman Empire]], when mushrooms were viewed as a [[delicacy]] of the highest order and were held in high regard as food for [[emperor]]s.

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=== Guinea pig and related rodents ===

[[File:Peru Guinea Pig.jpg|thumb|Roast guinea pig (''Cavia porcellus'') in Peru]]

[[Guinea pig]]s, or ''cuy'', are commonly eaten in Peru, in the southwestern cities and villages of [[Colombia]], and among some populations in the highlands of [[Ecuador]], mostly in the [[Andes]] highlands. Cuyes can be found on the menu of restaurants in [[Lima]] and other cities in Peru, as well as in [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]], Colombia. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations. In 2004, the [[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]] took legal action to stop vendors serving ''cuy'' at an Ecuadorian festival in [[Flushing Meadows – Corona Park|Flushing Meadows Park]]. [[New York (state)|New York State]] allows the consumption of guinea pigs, but [[New York City]] prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.

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=== Giraffe ===

Although [[giraffe|giraffes]] are technically considered kosher (since they chew their cuds and have split hooves), the more orthodox interpretation of Kashrut still forbids consumption of the meat, therefore marking the giraffe, despite with otherwise permissible characteristics, as non-kosher. The reason is the animal has no tradition of permissibility, meaning not allowed to be eaten, despite its signs of being a kosher animal. In addition, its large size and more aggressive behaviour puts a strain on logistics when performing ''shechita'' (ritual slaughtering). Their vulnerable status has also played a role in prohibition by many rabbis. The long neck of the giraffe being difficult to perform the slaughter is not the reason why giraffe is non-kosher, despite common knowledge.

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===Herbs===

Some adherents of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] avoid [[basil]] due to its association with the cross of Christ. It is believed that the cross was discovered in 325 AD by Saint Helen on a hill covered in beautiful, fragrant basil bushes, a hitherto unknown plant. The plant was named {{lang|grc|βασιλικόν φυτόν}} (''basilikón fytón'') "royal plant" and today is grown and admired rather than eaten. Fine basil plants are brought to church every year on 14 September to commemorate this legend in a celebration known as the [[Elevation of the Holy Cross]].

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===Horse meat===

{{Main|Horse meat}}

{{See also|Horse slaughter}}

[[File:Horsemeatsandwich.jpg|thumb|Smoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich.]]

Horse meat is part of the cuisine of many countries in Europe, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden by [[613 Mitzvot|Jewish law]], because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. Similarly to dogs, eating horses was a taboo for the [[Castro culture]] in Northwestern [[Portugal]], and it is still a counter-cultural practice in the region.

Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of [[Christianity]]. In 732 CE, [[Pope Gregory III]] instructed Saint Boniface to suppress the [[pagan]] practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom". The [[Christianisation of Iceland]] in 1000 CE was achieved only when the Church promised that [[Icelanders]] could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued. Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef, [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]] and pork.

In [[Islam]], opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat. Some cite a [[hadith]] forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its validity and authority. Wild horses and asses are generally seen as halal while domesticated donkeys are viewed as forbidden. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have eaten the meat, while in North Africa this is rare.

In Canada, horse meat is legal. Most Canadian horse meat is exported to [[Continental Europe]] or Japan. In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in [[California]] and [[Illinois]]. However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The last horse meat slaughterhouse in USA was closed in 2007. Nevertheless, discarded leisure, sport and work horses are collected and sold at auctions. They are shipped across the country by transporters to the borders of Canada in the north and Mexico in the south to be sold to horse meat butchers. The issue of horse consumption in the UK and Ireland was raised in 2013 with regards to the [[2013 horse meat contamination scandal]].

Horse meat is generally avoided in the [[Balkans]], though not Slovenia, as horse is considered to be a noble animal or because eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine. However, it has a small [[niche market]] in Serbia.

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===Coffee and tea===

"[[Word of Wisdom (Latter Day Saints)#Tea and coffee|Hot drinks]]" are taboo for members of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. The term is misleading as the ban is applied exclusively to [[coffee]] and [[tea]] (i.e. not [[Hot chocolate|hot cocoa]] or [[herbal tea]]s). The [[Word of Wisdom]], a code of health used by church members, outlines prohibited and allowed substances. While not banned, some [[Mormon]]s avoid [[caffeine]] in general, including [[cola]] drinks. Members of the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] also generally avoid caffeinated drinks.

There is a widely reported story, possibly apocryphal, that around the year 1600, some Catholics urged [[Pope Clement VIII]] to ban coffee, calling it "devil's beverage". After tasting the beverage, the pope is said to have remarked that the drink was "so delicious that it would be a sin to let only misbelievers drink it." (See the [[History of coffee]].)

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===Human breast milk===

While [[human breast milk]] is universally accepted for [[Breastfeeding|infant nutrition]], some cultures see the consumption of breast milk after weaning as taboo.