Food and drink prohibitions: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Prohibitions related to foods and drinks}}

{{About|practices and beliefs in relation to various [[food]] and potential foods|more discussion on religious views|Unclean animal}}

Some people do not eat various specific foods and beverages in conformity with various [[Religion|religious]], [[Culture|cultural]], [[Law|legal]] or other societal prohibitions. Many of these prohibitions constitute [[taboo]]s. Many food taboos and other prohibitions forbid the meat of a particular [[animal]], including [[Mammal|mammals]] (such as [[Rodent|rodents]]), [[Reptile|reptiles]], [[Amphibian|amphibians]], [[fish]], [[Mollusca|molluscs]], [[Crustacean|crustaceans]] and [[Insect|insects]], which may relate to a [[disgust]] response being more often associated with [[Meat|meats]] than plant-based foods. Some prohibitions are specific to a particular part or [[excretion]] of an animal, while others forgo the consumption of [[Plant|plants]] or [[Fungus|fungi]].

Some food prohibitions can be defined as rules, [[Religious law|codified by religion]] or otherwise, about which foods, or combinations of foods, may not be eaten and how animals are to be [[animal slaughter|slaughtered]] or prepared. The origins of these prohibitions are varied. In some cases, they are thought to be a result of health considerations or other practical reasons; in others, they relate to human [[symbolic system]]s.

Some foods may be prohibited during certain religious periods (e.g., [[Lent]]), at certain stages of life (e.g., [[pregnancy]]), or to certain classes of people (e.g., [[priest]]s), even if the food is otherwise permitted. On a comparative basis, what may be declared unfit for one group may be perfectly acceptable to another within the same culture or across different cultures. Food taboos usually seem to be intended to protect the human individual from harm, spiritually or physically, but there are numerous other reasons given within cultures for their existence. An ecological or medical background is apparent in many, including some that are seen as religious or spiritual in origin. Food taboos can help utilizing a resource, but when applied to only a subsection of the community, a food taboo can also lead to the monopolization of a food item by those exempted. A food taboo acknowledged by a particular group or tribe as part of their ways, aids in the cohesion of the group, helps that particular group to stand out and maintain its identity in the face of others and therefore creates a feeling of "belonging".

==Causes==

[[File:Use of eggs, meet, vine is prohibited. Jaisalmeer. 93.jpg|thumb|"Use of eggs meet & vine [''meat and wine''] is strictly-prohibited here." [[Jaisalmer]], [[Rajasthan]], India. 1993]]

Various religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example, [[Judaism]] prescribes a strict set of rules, called ''[[kashrut]]'', regarding what may and may not be eaten, and notably forbidding the mixing of meat with dairy products. [[Islamic dietary laws|Islam has similar laws]], dividing foods into ''[[haram]]'' (forbidden) and ''[[halal]]'' (permitted). [[Jainism|Jains]] often follow religious directives to observe [[vegetarianism]]. Some [[Hindus]] do not eat beef, and some [[Hindu]]s, especially those from the upper [[caste]]s consider vegetarianism as ideal, and practise forms of vegetarianism. In some cases, the process of preparation rather than the food itself comes under scrutiny. For instance, in early medieval Christianity, certain uncooked foods were of dubious status: a [[penitential]] ascribed to [[Bede]] outlined a (mild) penance for those who ate uncooked foods, and [[Saint Boniface]] wrote to [[Pope Zachary]] (in a letter preserved in the [[Codex Vindobonensis 751#The Boniface correspondence|Boniface correspondence]], no. 87) asking him how long [[bacon]] would have to be cured to be proper for consumption. The [[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]] system was used in [[Hawaii]] until 1819.

Aside from formal rules, there are cultural taboos against the consumption of some animals. Within a given society, some meats will be considered to be not for consumption that are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff. Novel meats, i.e. animal-derived food products not familiar to an individual or to a culture, generally provoke a [[disgust]] reaction, which may be expressed as a cultural taboo. For example, although [[dog meat]] is eaten, in certain circumstances, in [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], and [[China]], it is considered inappropriate as a food in virtually all Western countries. Likewise, [[horse meat]] is rarely eaten in the [[English-speaking world]], although it is part of the national cuisine of countries as widespread as [[Kazakhstan]], [[Japan]], [[Italy]], and [[France]].

Sometimes food prohibitions enter national or local law, as with the ban on cattle [[Slaughterhouse|abattoirs]] in most of [[India]], and [[Horse slaughter#United States|horse slaughter]] in the [[United States]]. Even after reversion to Chinese rule, [[Hong Kong]] has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, created during [[British Hong Kong|British rule]].

[[Environmentalism]], [[ethical consumerism]] and other [[Activism|activist]] movements are giving rise to new prohibitions and eating guidelines. A fairly recent addition to cultural food prohibitions is the meat and eggs of [[endangered species]] or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include some species of whales, [[sea turtle]]s, and [[bird migration|migratory birds]]. Similarly, [[sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification]] discourage the consumption of certain seafoods due to [[Unsustainable fishing methods|unsustainable fishing]]. [[Organic certification]] prohibits certain [[Chemical synthesis|synthetic]] chemical inputs during food production, or [[genetically modified organism]]s, [[irradiation]], and the use of [[sewage sludge]]. The [[fair trade]] movement and certification discourage the consumption of food and other goods produced in exploitative working conditions. Other [[social movement]]s generating taboos include [[local food]] and ''[[The 100-Mile Diet]]'', both of which encourage abstinence from non-locally produced food, and [[veganism]], in which adherents endeavour not to use or consume animal products of any kind.

===Amphibians===

[[File:Bag of frogs legs.jpg|thumb|A bag of frog legs from Vietnam.]]

[[Judaism]] strictly forbids the consumption of [[amphibian]]s such as [[frog]]s. The restriction is described in [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]] 11:29-30 and 42–43. Derivative chemical products from amphibians, as well as with other proscribed animals, must be avoided.

In other cultures, foods such as [[frog legs]] are treasured as delicacies, and the animals may be raised commercially in some circumstances. However, environmental concerns over the [[Endangered species|endangerment]] of frogs, even possibly pushing them into [[extinction]], due to [[overconsumption]] has prompted legal action in nations such as [[France]] to limit their use in food. The [[Ministry of Agriculture (France)|French Ministry of Agriculture]] began taking measures to protect native frog species in 1976, and efforts have continued since. Mass commercial harvesting of the animals was banned in 1980, though international imports as well as private, individual hunting and cooking remains legal in many areas.

===Bats===

{{Main|Bat as food}}

In Judaism, the [[Deuteronomic Code]] and [[Priestly Code]] explicitly prohibit the bat. Bat meat, like that of all predatory land animals, is ''[[haram]]'' (prohibited) in Islam.

===Birds===

The [[Torah]] ([[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]] 11:13) explicitly states that the [[eagle]], [[vulture]], and [[osprey]] are not to be eaten. A bird now commonly raised for meat in some areas, the [[ostrich]], is explicitly banned as food in some interpretations of Leviticus 11:16. Rabbis have frequently inferred that traditions that explicitly prohibit [[birds of prey]] and natural [[scavenger]]s create a distinction with other avian species; thus, eating [[chickens]], [[ducks]], [[geese]], and [[turkeys]] is allowed.

In contrast, Islamic dietary rules permit the consumption of ostrich, while birds of prey (defined specifically as those who hunt with [[claws]] and [[talons]]) are forbidden, as in Judaism.

Scavengers and carrion-eaters such as vultures and [[crow]]s are avoided as food in many cultures because they are perceived as carriers of disease and unclean, and associated with death. An exception is the [[rook (bird)|rook]], which was a recognised country dish, and which has, more recently, been served in a [[Scottish cuisine|Scottish]] restaurant in [[London]]. In [[Western culture]]s today, most people regard [[songbird]]s as backyard wildlife rather than as food.

A [[Balut (food)|balut]] is a developing bird embryo (usually a duck or chicken) that is boiled and eaten from the shell. Part of the Quran includes understanding and respecting the law that any animal products should not be eaten if the animal has not been slaughtered properly, making the animal or animal-product "maytah". Because balut is an egg containing a partly-developed embryo, Muslims believe this makes it "haram", or "forbidden".

The [[ortolan bunting]] developed as a more recent taboo food among French gourmets. The tiny birds were captured alive, force-fed, then drowned in Armagnac, "roasted whole and eaten that way, bones and all, while the diner draped his head with a linen napkin to preserve the precious aromas and, some believe, to hide from God."

===Camels===

{{Main|Camel#Food uses}}

The eating of [[camel]]s is strictly prohibited by the Torah. The Torah considers the camel unclean, even though it chews the cud, or [[Regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitates]], the way bovines, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, and giraffes (all of which are [[Kashrut|kosher]]) do, because it does not meet the [[cloven hoof]] criterion. Like these animals, camels (and llamas) are [[ruminant]]s with a multi-chambered stomach. Camels are [[Artiodactyla|even-toed ungulates]], with feet split in two. However, a camel's feet form soft pads rather than hard hooves.

In Islam, the eating of camels is allowed, and is indeed traditional in the Islamic heartland in [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].

===Cattle===

{{Main|Cattle in religion and mythology}}

Cattle hold a traditional place as objects of reverence in countries such as [[India]]. Some Hindus, particularly [[Brahmin]]s, are vegetarian and strictly abstain from eating meat. All of those who do eat meat abstain from the consumption of [[beef]], as the cow holds a sacred place in [[Hinduism]]. For example, tradition states that the [[goddess]] [[Kamadhenu]] manifests herself as a wish-granting divine cow, with such stories repeated over generations.

In contrast to cow slaughter, consumption of [[dairy products]] such as milk, yogurt, and particularly [[ghee]] (a form of [[butter]]) is highly common in India. Cow-derived products play a significant role in [[Hinduism]] with milk particularly being highly revered, often being used in holy ceremonies.

[[Cattle|Bullocks]] were the primary source of agricultural power and transportation in the early days, and as India adopted an agricultural lifestyle, the cow proved to be a very useful animal. This respect, stemming out of necessity, led to abstaining from killing cows for food; for example, if a famine-stricken village kills and eats its bullocks, they will not be available to pull the plough and the cart when next planting season comes. However, little evidence has been found to support this conjecture. Areas suffering from famine may resort to consuming cattle in efforts to survive until the next season.

By Indian law, the slaughter of female cattle is banned in almost all [[States and territories of India|Indian states]] except [[Kerala]], [[West Bengal]] and the [[Seven Sister States|seven north eastern states]]. A person involved in either cow slaughter or its illegal transportation could be jailed in many states. Slaughter of cows is an extremely provocative issue for many Hindus.

Some [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhists]] discourage the consumption of beef, although it is not considered taboo. However, for [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Sinhalese Buddhists]], it is taboo and considered to be ungrateful to kill the animal whose milk and labour provides livelihoods to many [[Sinhalese people]].  

[[Buddhism in Myanmar|Burmese Buddhists]] also have a taboo against eating beef, because they consider cows as an animal responsible for working in the fields with human beings. However, it is not strictly considered taboo in cities such as [[Mandalay]] and [[Yangon]].

In the town of [[Kudus, Indonesia|Kudus]] on the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Java]], there is also a taboo on eating beef, despite most people being Muslim, to avoid offending Hindus.

===Chewing gum===

{{See also|Chewing gum ban in Singapore}}

A chewing gum sales ban has been in place since 1992 in Singapore. It is currently not illegal to chew gum in [[Singapore]], merely to import it and sell it, with certain exceptions. Since 2004, an exception has existed for therapeutic, dental, and nicotine [[chewing gum]], which can be bought from a doctor or registered pharmacist.

===Crustaceans and other seafood===

[[File:Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg|thumb|Blue crabs, ''[[Callinectes sapidus]]'', for sale at a market in [[Piraeus]].]]

Almost all types of non-[[Fish|piscine]] [[seafood]], such as [[shellfish]], [[lobster]], [[shrimp]] or [[crayfish]], are forbidden by Judaism because such animals live in water but do not have both [[Pterygiophore|fins]] and [[Scale (anatomy)|scales]].

As a general rule, all seafood is permissible in the 3 ''[[madh'hab]]'' of [[Sunni Islam]] except Hanafi school of thought. The [[Ja'fari jurisprudence|Ja'fari]] school of [[Fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], which is followed by most [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]], prohibits non-piscine (lacking scales) seafood, with the exception of shrimp.

===Honey===

[[Honey]] is concentrated [[nectar]] and [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] which has been [[regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitated]] by [[bee]]s. It is considered kosher even though [[honey bee]]s are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the [[Talmud]] and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not originally make the first honey, the flower does, while the bees store and dehydrate the liquid into honey. This is different from [[royal jelly]], which is produced by bees directly and is considered non-kosher.

Some vegans avoid honey as they would any other [[animal product]].

===Insects===

{{See also|Entomophagy|Entomophagy in humans|List of edible insects by country}}

In [[Judaism]] and [[Samaritanism]], certain [[locust]]s could be [[kosher foods]] (Leviticus 11:22). Otherwise, [[insect]]s are considered nonkosher. Kashrut also requires that practitioners check other foods carefully for insects.

In Islam, the eating of most insects is prohibited, but locusts are considered lawful food and do not require ritual slaughtering.

===Dogs===

{{Main|Dog meat}}

In [[Western world|Western countries]], eating dog meat is generally considered taboo, though that taboo has been broken under threat of starvation in the past. Dog meat has been eaten in every major German crisis at least since the time of [[Frederick the Great]], and is commonly referred to as "blockade mutton". In the early 20th century, consumption of dog meat in Germany was common. Suspicions about the provenance of Frankfurter meat sold by German immigrants in the United States led to the coinage of the term '[[hot dog]]'. In 1937, a meat inspection law targeting [[trichinella]] was introduced for pigs, dogs, [[boar]]s, foxes, [[badger]]s, and other carnivores. Dog meat has been prohibited in Germany since 1986. In 2009 a scandal erupted when a farm near the Polish town of [[Częstochowa]] was discovered rearing dogs to be rendered down into ''smalec'' - [[lard]].

In [[Switzerland]], an article in 2012 by The Local reported the continued consumption of dogs within the nation. Speculation arose suggesting that farmers in the German-speaking cantons of Appenzell and St. Gallen were known to personally slaughter these animals.

According to the ancient [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]] (cf. [[Manusmṛti]] and medicinal texts like [[Sushruta Samhita]]), ''dog's meat'' was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible. Dog's meat is also regarded as unclean under Jewish and Islamic dietary laws; therefore, consumption of dog meat is forbidden by both of those religious traditions.

In [[Irish mythology]], legend recounts how [[Cú Chulainn]], the great hero of [[Ulster Cycle|Ulster]] whose name means [[Culann]]'s Hound, was presented with a [[Morton's fork]], forcing him to either break his ''[[geis]]'' (taboo) about eating dog meat or declining hospitality; Cú Chulainn chose to eat the meat, leading ultimately to his death.

In [[Mexico]], in the [[pre-Columbian era]], a hairless breed of dog named [[xoloitzcuintle]] was commonly eaten. After colonization, this custom stopped.

In [[East Asia]], most countries rarely consume dog meat with the exception of [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[North Korea|North]] [[Dog meat consumption in South Korea|and South Korea]] either because of Islamic or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] values or animal rights as in Taiwan. [[Manchu]]s have a prohibition against the eating of dog meat, which is sometimes consumed by the Manchus' neighboring [[Northeast Asia|Northeastern Asian]] peoples. The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur. In addition to Manchus, [[Mongols in China|Chinese Mongol]], [[Miao people|Miao]], [[Chinese Muslims|Muslims]], [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]], [[Yao people|Yao]] and [[Yi people|Yi]] have a taboo against dog meat. In [[Indonesia]], due to its majority Islamic population, consuming dog meat is prohibited, with exception of Christian [[Batak]] and [[Minahasan]] ethnic groups that traditionally consumed dog meat.

The [[Urapmin people]] of the [[New Guinea Highlands]] do not kill or eat dogs, unlike some neighboring tribes, nor do they let dogs breathe on their food.

===Bears===

{{See also|Bear hunting|Bear meat}}

Bears are not considered [[kosher animals]] in Judaism. Bear meat, like all [[predatory]] [[terrestrial animal]]s, is forbidden by Islam.

===Cats===

{{Main|Cat meat}}

There is a strong taboo against eating cats in many [[Western world|Western parts of the world]], including most of the [[Americas]] and [[Europe]]. Cat meat is forbidden by Jewish and Islamic law as both religions forbid the eating of carnivores. Cats are commonly regarded as [[pet]]s in Western countries, or as working animals, kept to control [[vermin]], not as a food animal, and consumption of cats is thus seen as a barbaric act by a large part of the population in those countries.

In [[Switzerland]], a 2012 report by The Local also highlighted the consumption of cats within the country.  

===Eggs===

{{main|Egg as food}}

Consumption of eggs is permissible in all Abrahamic faiths.

[[Jainism|Jains]] abstain from eating eggs. Many [[Hindu]] and Orthodox [[Sikh]] vegetarians also refrain from eating eggs.

An egg that naturally contains a spot of blood may not be eaten under Jewish and Islamic tradition, but eggs without any blood are commonly consumed (and are not considered to be meat, so may be eaten with dairy).

===Elephants===

{{See also|Elephant meat}}

[[File:CBP Catches Elephant Meat, Dead Primate, Exotic Animal Skins at LAX (8758838522).jpg|thumb|Elephant meat that was seized by [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] officers.]]

[[Buddhist|Buddhists]] are forbidden from eating elephant meat.

Elephant meat is also not considered kosher by [[Kashrut|Jewish dietary laws]] because elephants do not have [[cloven hoof|cloven hooves]] and are not [[ruminants]].

Some scholars of [[Islamic dietary laws]] have ruled that it is forbidden for [[Muslims]] to eat elephant because elephants fall under the prohibited category of fanged or predatory animals.

[[Hindus]] strictly avoid any contact with elephant meat due to the importance of the god [[Ganesha]] who is widely worshipped by Hindus.

The [[Kalika Purana]] distinguishes ''bali'' (sacrifice) and ''mahabali'' (great sacrifice), for the ritual killing of [[goat]]s, [[elephant]], respectively, though the reference to humans in [[Shakti]] theology is symbolic and done in [[effigy]] in modern times.

===Fish===

{{Main|Fish as food}}

{{quote|Speak not to me with a mouth that eats fish|Somali nomad taunt}}

Among the [[Somali people]], most [[Demographics of Somalia|clans]] have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.

There are taboos on eating fish among many upland [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[Farmer|agriculturalists]] (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to [[East Africa]], though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where [[Cushitic languages]] are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] and [[Semitic languages]] do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen. The few [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] and [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where [[Kingdom of Kush|Cushites]] appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the [[tsetse fly]] and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by [[Nomadic pastoralism|wandering pastoralists]], the principal fish-avoiders. [[Zambia]] and [[Mozambique]]'s Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.

There is also another center of fish avoidance in [[Southern Africa]], among mainly [[Bantu languages|Bantu speakers]]. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the [[Khoisan]]. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.

Certain species of fish, such as the freshwater [[eel]] ([[Anguillidae]]) and all species of [[catfish]], are also forbidden by Judaism. Although they live in water, they appear to have no scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10-13). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this. Catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni ''madh'hab''. The Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids all species of fish that do not have scales, as well as all shell fish species except prawns.

Many tribes of the [[Southwestern United States]], including the [[Navajo people|Navajo]], [[Apache]], and [[Zuni people|Zuñi]], have a taboo against fish and other aquatic animals, including [[waterfowl]].

The people of the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] have a taboo against the consumption against fish (as well as birds including waterfowl, though the fish taboo has endured the most through generations). According to a lecture by Grant Manyheads of [[Blackfoot Crossing|Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park]], the Blackfoot's cuisine was based in a belief that only certain animals, those with four legs and hooves and which grazed on grass, were seen as "clean" and thus suitable for consumption. This meant that any other animals, including fish, birds (especially waterfowl), and clawed animals such as bears and dogs or wolves, were not considered suitable or clean enough to eat. However, this taboo was broken in times of need and starvation. Breaking the taboo was seen as an especially desperate act among the Blackfoot, but was not seen to carry any particular religious or spiritual repercussions, hence the allowance of breaking the taboo out of desperation.  

[[Norse settlements in Greenland|Norse settlers in Greenland]] (10th–15th centuries AD) may have developed a taboo against fish consumption, as recounted in [[Jared Diamond]]'s ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]''. This is unusual, as [[Norsemen]] did not generally have a taboo against fish, Diamond noting that "Fish bones account for much less than 0.1% of animal bones recovered at Greenland Norse archeological sites, compared to between 50 and 95% at most contemporary [[Iceland]], northern [[Norway]], and [[Shetland]] sites." However, this has been disputed by archaeologists.

[[Foie gras]], the fatty liver of geese that have been force-fed according to French law, has been the subject of [[Foie gras controversy|controversy]] and prohibitions exist in different parts of the world. In July 2014, India banned the import of foie gras making it the first and only country in the world to do so, causing dismay among some of the nation's chefs. In Australia, the production of foie gras is currently forbidden, though it is legal to import it. In August 2003, Argentina banned foie gras production as it is considered a mistreatment or an act of cruelty to animals. In 2023 foie gras production was banned in the [[Flemish Region]] of Belgium.

===Animal fetuses===

Many countries observe this as a delicacy but it is a taboo in most countries. Considered as corpses, fetuses of goats and sheep are a delicacy in Anglo-Indian culture, despite being taboo in both parent cultures (English and Indian). This Anglo-Indian dish is known as "[[kutti pi]]" (fetus bag).

===Fungi===

Vedic [[Brahmins]], Gaudiya [[Vaishnavas]], [[tantriks]] and some [[Buddhist]] priests abstain from [[Fungus|fungi]], which are eschewed as they grow at night.

In [[Iceland]], rural parts of Sweden and Western Finland, although not taboo, [[edible mushroom|mushrooms]] were not widely eaten before the Second World War. They were viewed as food for [[cow]]s and were also associated with the stigma of being wartime and [[famine food|poverty food]]. This is in contrast to the days of the [[Roman Empire]], when mushrooms were viewed as a [[delicacy]] of the highest order and were held in high regard as food for [[emperor]]s.

=== Guinea pig and related rodents ===

[[File:Peru Guinea Pig.jpg|thumb|Roast guinea pig (''Cavia porcellus'') in Peru]]

[[Guinea pig]]s, or ''cuy'', are commonly eaten in Peru, in the southwestern cities and villages of [[Colombia]], and among some populations in the highlands of [[Ecuador]], mostly in the [[Andes]] highlands. Cuyes can be found on the menu of restaurants in [[Lima]] and other cities in Peru, as well as in [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]], Colombia. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations. In 2004, the [[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]] took legal action to stop vendors serving ''cuy'' at an Ecuadorian festival in [[Flushing Meadows – Corona Park|Flushing Meadows Park]]. [[New York (state)|New York State]] allows the consumption of guinea pigs, but [[New York City]] prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.

Although [[giraffe|giraffes]] are technically considered kosher (since they chew their cuds and have split hooves), the more orthodox interpretation of Kashrut still forbids consumption of the meat, therefore marking the giraffe, despite with otherwise permissible characteristics, as non-kosher. The reason is the animal has no tradition of permissibility, meaning not allowed to be eaten, despite its signs of being a kosher animal. In addition, its large size and more aggressive behaviour puts a strain on logistics when performing ''shechita'' (ritual slaughtering). Their vulnerable status has also played a role in prohibition by many rabbis. The long neck of the giraffe being difficult to perform the slaughter is not the reason why giraffe is non-kosher, despite common knowledge.  

===Herbs===

Some adherents of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] avoid [[basil]] due to its association with the cross of Christ. It is believed that the cross was discovered in 325 AD by Saint Helen on a hill covered in beautiful, fragrant basil bushes, a hitherto unknown plant. The plant was named {{lang|grc|βασιλικόν φυτόν}} (''basilikón fytón'') "royal plant" and today is grown and admired rather than eaten. Fine basil plants are brought to church every year on 14 September to commemorate this legend in a celebration known as the [[Elevation of the Holy Cross]].

===Horse meat===

{{Main|Horse meat}}

Horse meat is part of the cuisine of many countries in Europe, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden by [[613 Mitzvot|Jewish law]], because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. Similarly to dogs, eating horses was a taboo for the [[Castro culture]] in Northwestern [[Portugal]], and it is still a counter-cultural practice in the region.

Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of [[Christianity]]. In 732 CE, [[Pope Gregory III]] instructed Saint Boniface to suppress the [[pagan]] practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom". The [[Christianisation of Iceland]] in 1000 CE was achieved only when the Church promised that [[Icelanders]] could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued. Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef, [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]] and pork.

In [[Islam]], opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat. Some cite a [[hadith]] forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its validity and authority. Wild horses and asses are generally seen as halal while domesticated donkeys are viewed as forbidden. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have eaten the meat, while in North Africa this is rare.

In Canada, horse meat is legal. Most Canadian horse meat is exported to [[Continental Europe]] or Japan. In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in [[California]] and [[Illinois]]. However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The last horse meat slaughterhouse in USA was closed in 2007. Nevertheless, discarded leisure, sport and work horses are collected and sold at auctions. They are shipped across the country by transporters to the borders of Canada in the north and Mexico in the south to be sold to horse meat butchers. The issue of horse consumption in the UK and Ireland was raised in 2013 with regards to the [[2013 horse meat contamination scandal]].

Horse meat is generally avoided in the [[Balkans]], though not Slovenia, as horse is considered to be a noble animal or because eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine. However, it has a small [[niche market]] in Serbia.

===Humans===

{{Main|Cannibalism|Human cannibalism}}

Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most heavily proscribed. In recent times, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger – never as a common part of their diet, but it is thought that the practice was once widespread among all humans.

The [[Fore people|Fore]] people of Papua New Guinea engaged in [[Endocannibalism|funerary cannibalism]] until the Australian government prohibited the practice in the late 1950s. Cannibalism was how the prion disease [[Kuru (disease)|kuru]] spread, though the link was unproven until 1967.

The consumption of human flesh is forbidden by Hinduism, Islam,

===Primates (apes, monkeys, etc.)===

{{See also|Monkey meat|Monkey brains|Carne de chango|Lemur#In Malagasy culture}}

Monkey brains is a dish consisting of, at least partially, the [[brain]] of some species of [[monkey]] or [[ape]]. In [[Western Hemisphere|Western]] popular culture, its consumption is repeatedly portrayed and debated, often in the context of portraying exotic cultures as exceptionally cruel, callous, and/or strange.

Monkeys are revered animals in India, largely because of the monkey god [[Hanuman]]. Many Hindus are vegetarian and do not eat any kind of meat, including monkeys. Meat eating Indians also do not kill or eat monkeys. Killing and eating monkeys (or other animals which are considered wild) is both taboo and illegal in India.

In Malagasy culture, lemurs are considered to have [[soul]]s (''ambiroa'') which can get revenge if mocked while alive or if killed in a cruel fashion. Because of this, lemurs, like many other elements of daily life, have been a source of [[taboo]]s, known locally as ''fady'', which can be based around stories with four basic principles. A village or region may believe that a certain type of lemur may be the [[ancestor]] of the clan. They may also believe that a lemur's spirit may get revenge. Alternatively, the animal may appear as a benefactor. Lemurs are also thought to impart their qualities, good or bad, onto human babies. In general, ''fady'' extend beyond a sense of the forbidden, but can include events that bring bad luck.

Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's [[Cavally River]] included [[chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes''), [[Diana monkey]] (''Cercopithecus diana''), [[putty-nosed monkey]] (''C. nictitans''), [[lesser spot-nosed monkey]] (''C. petaurista''), [[Campbell's mona monkey]] (''C. campbelli''), [[sooty mangabey]] (''Cercocebus atys''), [[king colobus]] (''Colobus polykomos''), [[olive colobus]] (''Procolobus verus''), [[western red colobus]] (''P. badius'').

[[File:Gorilla gorilla09.jpg|thumb|A gorilla in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008]]

Between 1983 and 2002, the [[Gabon]] populations of [[western gorilla]] (''Gorilla gorilla'') and [[common chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes'') were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for [[logging]] purposes.

In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked [[bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') carcasses were observed in [[Basankusu]] in the [[Province of Équateur]] in the Congo Basin.

Some people consider consumption of primates to be close to [[human cannibalism]] due to monkeys and apes being close relatives of [[human being]]s.

===Kangaroo===

[[Kangaroo meat]] has long been a significant part of some [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous Australian]] diets. Kangaroo meat was legalised for human consumption in South Australia in 1980, though in other states it could only be sold as pet food until 1993. Kangaroos, along with most other native Australian animals, are protected under Australian law on a state and federal level, but licences to kill kangaroos can be acquired for hunting or culling purposes. Though kangaroo meat was once unpopular with modern Australians, it has become a lot more popular in recent years due to its reputation as a low-fat and low-emission meat, and can be found in most supermarkets.

[[Kangaroo meat]] is illegal in [[California]]. The ban was first imposed in 1971; a moratorium was put in place in 2007, allowing the importation of the meat, but the ban was re-implemented in 2015. Kangaroo meat is also not considered biblically [[kosher]] by [[Jews]] or [[Seventh-Day Adventism|Adventists]]. However, it is considered [[halal]] according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.

===Living animals===

[[File:Oysters p1040741.jpg|thumb|''Raw oysters'', which are still alive, presented on a plate.]]

Islamic law, Judaic law (including [[Seven Laws of Noah|Noahide Law]]), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, [[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin]] 59a). However, in the case of a ''[[ben pekuah]]'' where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply. Eating oysters raw, [[ikizukuri]], and other similar cases would be considered a violation of this in Jewish law.

Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include [[eating live seafood]], such as "raw [[oyster]] on the half shell" and [[ikizukuri]] (live fish). [[Sashimi]] using live animals has been banned in some countries.

===Offal===

[[File:MarketScene.jpg|thumb|Heads, [[Brain (as food)|brains]], trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.]]

[[Offal]] is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as [[sweetbread]]s and [[kidney]]. Offal is a traditional part of many [[European cuisine|European]] and [[Asian cuisine]]s, including such dishes as the [[steak and kidney pie]] in the United Kingdom or [[Callos|''callos a la madrileña'']] in Spain. [[Haggis]] has been [[Scotland]]'s [[national dish]] since the time of [[Robert Burns]]. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called [["''buchada''"]], made with goats' stomach.

Except for heart, [[Beef tongue|tongue (beef)]], [[liver]] (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural [[sausage]] [[Casing (sausage)|casings]], organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example, [[tripe]] as ''[[Menudo (soup)|menudo]]'' or ''[[sopa de mondongo|mondongo]]'' among [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latinos and Hispanos]], [[chitterlings]] in the [[Southern United States]], [[scrapple]] on the Eastern Seaboard, [[fried-brain sandwich]]es in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], and beef [[testicle]]s called [[Rocky Mountain oysters]] or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served as ''huevos de toro'' or 'bull's eggs'.

In some regions, such as the [[European Union]], [[Brain (food)|brains]] and other organs which can transmit [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the [[food chain]] as [[specified risk material]]s.

Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient [[Cheesemaker|cheesemaking]] techniques utilize stomachs (which contain [[rennet]]) for turning [[milk]] into [[cheese]], a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that the ''process'' by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.

===Poppy seed===

{{main|Poppy seed}}

[[Poppy seed]]s are used as condiments in many cultures, but the trace amounts of [[morphine]] and [[codeine]] present in the seeds can lead to a [[false positive]] when administering a drug test. In [[Singapore]], poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by the [[Central Narcotics Bureau]] (CNB).

===Pigs/pork===

{{Main|Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork}}

[[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) data reports [[pork]] as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden by Islam, Judaism and certain [[Christian denomination]]s, such as [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g. [[Qur'an]] 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115, and Deuteronomy 14:8. Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: the [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and [[Babylonia]]ns. In some instances, the taboo extended beyond eating pork, and it was also taboo to touch or even look at pigs.

The original reason for this taboo is debated. [[Maimonides]] seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eat [[feces]]. In the 19th century, some people attributed the pig taboo in the [[Middle East]] to the danger of the parasite [[trichinosis|trichina]], but this explanation is now out of favour. [[James George Frazer]] suggested that, in ancient Israel, Egypt and Syria, the pig was originally a sacred animal, which for that reason could not be eaten or touched; the taboo survived to a time when the pig was no longer regarded as sacred, and was therefore explained by reference to its being unclean.

More recently, [[Marvin Harris]] posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates because they require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice. Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are [[Omnivore|omnivorous]], not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. [[Mary Douglas]] has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.

While [[meat alternatives|pork alternatives]] (for example, by [[Impossible Foods]]) do not contain actual pork meat, some conservative religious groups, such as Islam, regard it as forbidden, similar to its meat-based counterpart as it is the said ''haram'' or non-kosher product the pork alternative is trying to mimic and present. Lab-grown pork might also be considered haram or non-kosher.

===Rabbit===

{{Main|Rabbit#As food and clothing}}

The book of Leviticus in the [[Bible]] classifies the [[rabbit]] as [[unclean animals|unclean]] because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants). The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam, and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient in ''[[mulukhiya|molokheyya]]''), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence of [[Twelvers|Twelver]] Shia Islam.

===Rats and mice===

{{further|Rat meat|Mouse#As food}}

In most Western cultures, [[rat]]s and [[mouse|mice]] are considered either unclean [[vermin]] or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of [[Bubonic plague|plague]].

In [[Ghana]], ''Thryonomys swinderianus'' locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) "[[Aethomys|Bush rat]]" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative of [[porcupine]]s and guinea pigs that inhabit [[Africa]], south of the [[Sahara|Saharan Desert]]. In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases of [[monkeypox]], an illness never before been seen in the [[Western Hemisphere]].

Consumption of any sort of rodent, or material originating from rodents, is forbidden by Judaism and Islam.

===Reptiles===

Judaism and Islam strictly forbid the consumption of [[reptile]]s, such as [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s. In other cultures, foods such as [[alligator]] are treasured as delicacies, and the animals are [[Crocodile farm|raised commercially]].

===Vegetables, fruits and spices===

In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, consumption of vegetables of the [[Allium|onion]] [[genus]] are restricted. Adherents believe that these excite damaging passions. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or [[Hindu calendar|Hindu holy months]] of Shrawan, Puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.

[[Kashmiri people|Kashmiri]] Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as [[black pepper]] and [[chili pepper]], believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.

[[Jain vegetarianism|Jains]] not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also do not eat [[List of root vegetables|root vegetables]] (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe in [[ahimsa]]. In the hierarchy of living entities, overwintering plants such as onions are ranked higher than food crops such as wheat and rice. The ability of onions to observe the changing of the seasons and bloom in spring is believed to be an additional 'sense' absent in lower plants. The amount of bad karma generated depends on the number of senses the creature possesses and so it is thought prudent to avoid eating onions. This also means that in some North Indian traditions, effectively all overwintering plants are considered taboo.

Chinese [[Buddhist cuisine]] traditionally prohibits [[garlic]], ''[[Allium chinense]]'', [[asafoetida]], [[shallot]], and ''[[Allium victorialis]]'' (victory onion or mountain leek).

In [[Yazidism]], the eating of [[lettuce]] and [[Phaseolus lunatus|butter beans]] is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of [[Mosul]] in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.

The [[Pythagoreanism|followers of Pythagoras]] were vegetarians, and "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". However, [[Pythagorean diet|their creed]] prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the [[flatulence]] they cause, perhaps as protection from potential [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency|favism]], but most likely for [[magico-religious]] reasons. One legend about Pythagoras' death states that he was killed after he chose not to run through a fava bean field to escape his enemies.

Vegetables like [[broccoli]] and [[cauliflower]], while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as [[blackberry|blackberries]] and [[raspberry|raspberries]] are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit.

The common [[Egyptian cuisine|Egyptian dish]] [[mulukhiyah]], a soup whose primary ingredient is [[jute]] leaves (which did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis. While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the [[Druze]], who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat ''mulukhiyah'' of any kind to this day.

===Whales===

{{Main|Whale meat}}

Sunni Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales that have died of natural causes as there is a famous Sunni hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such. Whale meat is forbidden (haram) in Shia Islam as whales do not have scales. In much of the world, whale meat is not eaten due to the endangerment of whales but it is not traditionally forbidden. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to import whale meat into the country.

===Alcoholic beverages===

{{See also|Christianity and alcohol|Islam and alcohol|Religion and alcohol}}

Some religions – including Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, [[Rastafari movement]], [[Baháʼí Faith]], and various branches of Christianity such as the [[Baptists]], the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], the [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter-day Saints]], Seventh-day Adventists and the [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] – forbid or discourage the consumption of [[alcoholic beverage]]s.

The Hebrew Bible describes a [[Nazirite]] vow ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 6:1-21) that includes [[abstinence]] from alcohol, specifically [[wine]] and probably [[Barley wine|barley beer]] (according to the [[Septuagint]] translation and the [[Bauer lexicon]]: ''σικερα'', from the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] shikaru, for ''barley beer''). The [[New Jewish Publication Society of America Version|New JPS]] translation is: "wine and any other intoxicant". Other versions such as the NIV prohibit both alcohol and all alcohol derived products such as wine vinegar. There is no general taboo against alcohol in Judaism.

There are also cultural taboos against the consumption of alcohol, reflected for example in the [[Teetotalism]] or [[Temperance movement]]. There is also something of a cultural taboo in several countries, against the consumption of alcohol by women during pregnancy for health reasons, as seen, for example, in the [[Maternity Protection Convention, 2000]] by [[International Labour Conference|ILO]].

'''Absinthe'''

[[Absinthe]] was made illegal in the United States in 1912 because of its high alcohol percentage.  Absinthe was legalized again in 2007. It was rumored to have been a cause for hallucinations, giving it the nickname “The Green Fairy.”  

===Blood===

{{See also|Blood as food}}

Some religions prohibit drinking or eating blood or food made from blood. In Islam the consumption of blood is prohibited (''[[Haram]]''). ''[[Halal]]'' animals should be properly slaughtered to drain out the blood. Unlike in other traditions, this is not because blood is revered or holy, but simply because blood is considered [[ritually unclean]] or ''[[Najis]]'', with certain narratives prescribing [[Ritual purification|ablutions]] (in the case of no availability of water) if contact is made with it. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) is [[Salting (food)|salted]] to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus, that since "the life of the animal is in the blood" or "blood was reserved for the forgiveness of sins and thus reserved for God", no person may eat (or drink) the blood. [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] and [[Jehovah's Witness]]es prohibit eating or drinking any blood.

According to the Bible, blood is only to be used for special or sacred purposes in connection with worship ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] chapters 12, 24, 29, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:29 and [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]). In the [[Christianity in the 1st century|first century]], Christians, both former Jews (the [[Jewish Christians]]), and new [[Gentile]] converts, were in dispute as to which particular features of [[Mosaic law]] were to be retained and upheld by them. The [[Apostolic Decree]] suggested that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood:

{{quote|For it seemed good to the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things;

That ye abstain from meats offered to [[idolatry|idols]], and from blood, and from things strangled, and from [[fornication]]: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well.|}}

===Coffee and tea===

"[[Word of Wisdom (Latter Day Saints)#Tea and coffee|Hot drinks]]" are taboo for members of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. The term is misleading as the ban is applied exclusively to [[coffee]] and [[tea]] (i.e. not [[Hot chocolate|hot cocoa]] or [[herbal tea]]s). The [[Word of Wisdom]], a code of health used by church members, outlines prohibited and allowed substances. While not banned, some [[Mormon]]s avoid [[caffeine]] in general, including [[cola]] drinks. Members of the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] also generally avoid caffeinated drinks.

There is a widely reported story, possibly apocryphal, that around the year 1600, some Catholics urged [[Pope Clement VIII]] to ban coffee, calling it "devil's beverage". After tasting the beverage, the pope is said to have remarked that the drink was "so delicious that it would be a sin to let only misbelievers drink it." (See the [[History of coffee]].)

===Human breast milk===

While [[human breast milk]] is universally accepted for [[Breastfeeding|infant nutrition]], some cultures see the consumption of breast milk after weaning as taboo.

[[Kashrut]], the Jewish food regulations, classify all permissible foods into [[Milk and meat in Jewish law|three categories]]: meat products, dairy products, and others, which are considered to be neither (including not just vegetable products, but also fish and eggs). A meal or dish may not contain both meat and dairy products. As well, meat and fish may not be cooked together, nor fish and milk, although fish cooked with other dairy products is permitted.

In [[Italian cuisine]], there is a widespread taboo on serving cheese with seafood, although there are several exceptions.

==Prohibited origins==

In the Torah, there is the ''bishul akum'' law, in which the food that has a ''bishul akum'' status means that it was fully cooked by a non-Jew and thus forbidden, even though the ingredients used to prepare the food were initially kosher in and of themselves and the prohibited combinations were to be avoided.

==See also==

{{portal|Food}}

{{Consumer Food Safety}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Food And Drink Prohibitions}}

[[Category:Diets]]