Kashmiri cuisine: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Kashmiri cuisine waazwan.jpg|thumb|The thirty-six course meal, Kashmiri ''wazwan'']] [[File:Shufta Kashmiri cuisine.jpg|thumb|Shufta, a Kashmiri dessert, at a pandit restaurant in New Delhi.]] [[File:Harressa or Harees.jpeg|thumb|''Harissa'' or ''Harisse'', a meaty staple from Kashmir.]]

[[File:Kashmiri Pandit Non-Vegetarian Cuisine.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri Pandit platter.]]

'''Kashmiri cuisine''' refers to the traditional culinary practices of the [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] people from the [[Kashmir Valley]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India. The cuisine has strong influences from neighbouring regions in central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Rice has been a staple food in Kashmir since ancient times. The equivalent for the phrase "bread and butter" in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] is ''haakh-batte'' (greens and rice).

Kashmiri cuisine is generally meat-heavy. The region has, per capita, the highest mutton consumers in the subcontinent. In a majority of Kashmiri cooking, bread is not part of the meal. Bread is generally only eaten with tea in the morning or evening. A typical Kashmiri meal consists of a generous serving of rice (about 250 g), mutton (100 g) and vegetables (about 100 g, mostly greens) cooked in oil, and [[Yogurt|yoghurt]] (50 to 250 g).

The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese ([[paneer]]), and legumes by Muslims are similar to those of Pandits,~~<ref name = 'RRoy' />~~ except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of [[asafoetida]]. Lamb or sheep is the choice of meat for Pandits, whereas Muslims prefer goats. [[Celosia|Cockscomb flower]], called "mawal" in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes. Kashmiri Pandit cuisine uses the mildly pungent [[Kashmiri red chili]] powder as a spice, as well as ''[[Alkanna tinctoria|ratanjot]]'' to impart colour to certain dishes like [[rogan josh]]. Kashmiri Muslim cuisine uses chilies in moderate quantity and avoid hot dishes at large meals.~~<ref name=Kilam1991/>~~ In Kashmiri Muslim cuisine, vegetable curries are common with meat traditionally considered an expensive indulgence. Meat along with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared on special occasions like [[Eid al-Fitr]].

The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese ([[paneer]]), and legumes by Muslims are similar to those of Pandits, except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of [[asafoetida]]. Lamb or sheep is the choice of meat for Pandits, whereas Muslims prefer goats. [[Celosia|Cockscomb flower]], called "mawal" in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes. Kashmiri Pandit cuisine uses the mildly pungent [[Kashmiri red chili]] powder as a spice, as well as ''[[Alkanna tinctoria|ratanjot]]'' to impart colour to certain dishes like [[rogan josh]]. Kashmiri Muslim cuisine uses chilies in moderate quantity and avoid hot dishes at large meals. In Kashmiri Muslim cuisine, vegetable curries are common with meat traditionally considered an expensive indulgence. Meat along with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared on special occasions like [[Eid al-Fitr]].

== Global Popularity and Urban Expansion ==

Kashmiri cuisine has witnessed a notable rise in global appreciation, with iconic dishes such as [[Rogan josh|Rogan Josh]], [[Goshtaba|Gushtaba]], Yakhni, and [[Kahwah|Kahwa]] being featured in gourmet menus worldwide. From food festivals in London and Dubai to fine-dining experiences in New York and Toronto, the rich, aromatic flavours of Kashmir are being embraced by international audiences.

Within India, Kashmiri culinary offerings are increasingly making their mark in major metropolitan cities. Upscale Kashmiri restaurants have opened in [[Delhi]], [[Mumbai]], [[Bengaluru]], and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], catering to both the diaspora and curious food lovers seeking authentic regional cuisine. These establishments, often run by members of the Kashmiri community or curated by chefs specialising in [[Wazwan]], are helping preserve and promote the unique gastronomic heritage of the region.

This growth is further supported by food influencers, [[YouTube]] chefs, and curated pop-up events that showcase the intricate preparation and cultural significance of Kashmiri dishes.

== History of Kashmiri cuisine ==

From the Mahabharata to the Iranian invasion of Kashmir (which was a part of Gandhara) by Darius in 516 BC, to the Mauryans who established Srinagara to the Kushan Empire to the invasion of Kashmir by Timur in 1398, the culture and cuisine of Kashmiris are linked to South Asia, Persian and Central Asian cuisines mixed with local innovations and availabilities of ingredients. The term ''kabab'' is Arabic in origin, ''korma'' has Turkish roots, and ''rogan josh'', ''yakhaen'', ''ab gosht'', ''riste'' and ''goshtabh'' stem from Persian sources.[[File:Horned figure on pottery. Pré-Indus civilization. Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Red-ware pottery with horned figure from Burzahom.]] [[File:Northern India, Kashmir - Shalabhanjika (Woman and Tree) - 1974.74 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|Kashmiri Woman and Tree (300s – 400s), her fertile properties cause the tree to fruit.]

===Early history===

There is a legend that aeons ago Kashmir valley was a vast mountain lake. The soil contains remains of fresh-water fish and fossil-oysters and the black shells of water chestnut may be found in layers embedded in the earth at a height of 457 metres above the level of the valley.

=== Paleolithic age ===

The process of Kashmir's amalgamation with outer world commenced with the importation of primitive forms of snake and fire worship from Iran. Since [[Paleolithic]] times, serpents were worshipped and buried with a supply of insects in their graves as a provision for their future life. In addition, they splashed grains at shrines and graves to express regard unto snakes and other animals. Bommai Sopore archaeological site, discovered by Dr Mamtaz Yatoo in 2005, has a prehistoric rock engraving, the first of its kind found in Kashmir. This [[Upper Paleolithic]] engraving depicts chase and game engagements of the prehistoric population. Recent investigations by archaeologists  at Overa valley of Pahalgam have revealed stone tools of Paleolithic ages, including single-edged stone blades used for preying of animals.

=== Neolithic culture ===

Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation.~~<ref name="UNESCO-2022" />~~ Clear evidence for agriculture in the form of large domestic storages of grain and rachises of wheat and barley, as well as millets, were found after 2500 BC in Qasim Bagh in Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley contains multiple sites of the so-called Northern Neolithic, possibly dating as early as 3000 BC when climate became warmer. Excavations from Pethpuran Teng suggest a wider network of contact of this early population, and a significantly deeper time transition of broom-corn millets across the Inner Asian mountains. The date range returned from the lentil samples at Pethpuran Tang represent one of the earliest dated pulse crops from the region (c. 2700 BC). While the valley is altitudinally comparable to other inter-montane agro-pastoralist sites in Central Asia, Kashmir's slightly lower latitude presented the valley as a geographic threshold where crops could be grown without the necessary introgression of traits allowing their cultivation in higher and more northerly regions.

Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation. Clear evidence for agriculture in the form of large domestic storages of grain and rachises of wheat and barley, as well as millets, were found after 2500 BC in Qasim Bagh in Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley contains multiple sites of the so-called Northern Neolithic, possibly dating as early as 3000 BC when climate became warmer. Excavations from Pethpuran Teng suggest a wider network of contact of this early population, and a significantly deeper time transition of broom-corn millets across the Inner Asian mountains. The date range returned from the lentil samples at Pethpuran Tang represent one of the earliest dated pulse crops from the region (c. 2700 BC). While the valley is altitudinally comparable to other inter-montane agro-pastoralist sites in Central Asia, Kashmir's slightly lower latitude presented the valley as a geographic threshold where crops could be grown without the necessary introgression of traits allowing their cultivation in higher and more northerly regions.

The range of tools recovered at the [[Neolithic]] site of [[Burzahom]], in the district of [[Srinagar]] shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits.~~<ref name="UNESCO-2022" />~~ The Period II ([[Late Neolithic|Ceramic Neolithic]]) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram. Mortar and pestle characterised by a rectangular cross-section are made of the same volcanic rock as used by the current Kashmiris. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia.~~<ref name="UNESCO-2022" />~~ Harvesters (both in stone and bone) with two holes for handling it indicate contacts with China.

The range of tools recovered at the [[Neolithic]] site of [[Burzahom]], in the district of [[Srinagar]] shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits. The Period II ([[Late Neolithic|Ceramic Neolithic]]) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram. Mortar and pestle characterised by a rectangular cross-section are made of the same volcanic rock as used by the current Kashmiris. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia. Harvesters (both in stone and bone) with two holes for handling it indicate contacts with China.

At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41 km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear.~~<ref name="Ahmad-2021a" />~~ Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits. Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (''sus scrofa'') and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (''lepus''), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.

At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41 km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear. Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits. Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (''sus scrofa'') and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (''lepus''), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.

On the basis of the presence of the Emmer wheat (''Triticumdicoccum'') crop at Kanispur, seven kilometres east of Baramulla, contacts of Harappans with the Neolithic Kashmir has been suggested. With the Aryan migration to Kashmir around the 8th century BC, the fire worship cult got embedded into the innate religio-cultural texture of Kashmir through practices such as a phallic emblem of cooked rice. The local ceremony of ''vayuk'' is again near to the Iranian style of ''Farvadin''. On a special day of the month, Kashmiri Muslims remember their dead, visit their graves and distribute loaves of rice.

===Indo-Greek and Kushana period===

[[File:Badamwari Garden 02.jpg|thumb|Badamwari Garden in Kashmir is known for its almond blossoms. The almond (''prunus amygdalus'') tree has a very old history in the Kashmir valley.]]

Earthen ''thalis'' (pans) have been found at Semthan, north of Bijbehara from the Indo-Greek period (200 BC – 1st century AD).''Handis'' (metal pots), flat plates, pedestalled cups and edged bowls have been reported in large numbers from the excavated sites of Harwan, Kanispur and Semthan. At Kanispur, cooking pots have been found. Kushan coins have been recovered in large numbers from the Kashmir valley with those of [[Kanishka]] continuing to emulate Vima's motif of king sacrificing at an altar.

The Kushan period is characterised by a double-cropping pattern, suggesting a change in agricultural practices associated with a population recovery following a post-Neolithic decline. Finds of ''Vitis vinifera'' (Common Grape Vine), ''Emblica officinalis'' (Indian Gooseberry), ''Ziziphus nummularia'' (Wild Jujube)'', Juglans regia'' (English Walnut) and ''Prunus amygdalus'' (Almond) suggest that horticulture and foraging played an important role in the diet of the occupants. The Kushan remains from Kanispur are dominated by barley, in contrast to Semthan where wheat is more common.

The Kushana history tells us that right from the days of the Kushana rulers (1st century AD – 450 AD) there were contacts between Romans and Kashmir. Kashmir was connected to the southern silk route via Gilgit and Yasin valley at Tashkurghan. The main items of export to Rome were saffron and [[dolomiaea costus]] (''kutha''). Dolomiaea costus was used in Rome for various purposes, among which for scenting of food and seasoning of wine.

===Hindu dynasties===

There were military contacts between the Karkota kingdom in Kashmir and the Tang (618 AD – 907 AD) court in China. When the Chinese Tang Dynasty successfully defeated the Tibetan forces and entered little Palur in October 722 AD, Kashmir was credited for providing agricultural supplies essential to sustaining the Chinese troops stationed in Gilgit valley.

===Kashmir Sultanate (1346 – 1580s)===

[[File:Sheikh Noor-ud-din Wali.jpg|thumb|Shrine of Kashmiri Sufi saint Nund Reshi.]]

Since Islam did not directly arrive from Arabia to Kashmir, it naturally carried with it mixed Iranian and Central Asian influences. Similarly, the Kashmiri Hindus were doing things which would have frightened orthodox Hindus from India. They drank water brought by a Muslim, ate food that was cooked in a Muslim boat and even Muslim foster-mothers were allowed to feed their children. Hence, the ''rishi'' cult identified with Hinduism in subscribing to vegetarianism, non-injury to animals and abstaining from the use of garlic and onion in food. [[Nund Rishi]], according to a legend, subsisted on a diet of dried dandelion leaves and [[Lal Ded]] preached and practised strict vegetarianism.

Moreover, when [[Yousuf Shah Chak|Yusuf Shah Chak]], the last sovereign king of Kashmir signed a treaty with emperor Akbar recognising his symbolic sovereignty in 1586 one of the terms was that the mint, the saffron and game would remain under imperial control.

===Mughals (1580s – 1750s)===

===Mughals (1580s – 1750s)===

In Srinagar, poor people's meals were made of ghee, milk, beef, onions, wine, pickles, and vinegar. Rice, fish, and numerous vegetables were staple foods during the Mughal era. Butter and fats were not widely used in cooking since they were believed to be dangerous owing to the cold environment. The river water was not drunk by the people of South Kashmir. They drank Dal Lake water, which was warm, pleasant, and easily digestible.

In 1635–36, during Shahjahan's reign, a violent conflict flared up between the Shias and Sunnis when a group of both the sections were eating mulberries at Maisuma and some were accused of using indecent words against Muhammad. In 1641, unprecedented floods followed by a famine rendered the villages desolate. Shahjahan sent 30,000 rupees to the ''subedar'' Tarbiyat Khan to be distributed among the destitute in Srinagar and also ordered that five centres should be opened in the valley to provide free food to the needy.

=== Sikh Rule (1819–1846) ===

Cow slaughter was declared a crime punishable by death and many people accused of killing cows were publicly hanged. Owing to the shortsighted policy of the rulers Kashmír witnessed an acute agrarian crisis. Sikh rulers imposed one half of the paddy production as a share of the government. The population of Kashmir decreased from 800,000 in 1822–1823 to 120,000 in 1835.

=== Dogra Rule (1846–1947) ===

Coarse rice and ''haakh'' constituted the main food. Where paddy cultivation was restricted due to uneven terrain and lack of irrigation facilities, wheat and maize constituted the main items of food. In certain parts of Kashmir they lived on aquatic products such as ''singhara'' (water nuts).

Kashmiri apples were carried by coolies on their backs over 12 days to Rawalpindi in British India.

The famine of 1878–79 was deadly.~~<ref name="Naik-2012" />~~ Also, catching and eating of fish by men driven by hunger was made unlawful by an edict during the reign of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. Often anyone who killed a cow was boiled in oil and the hung from a hook which was fixed on to a pole in a public place. People did not possess any right to waste land and the only right which the villager had was that he could plant trees on such lands, and was the owner of the trees and not of land. Milk and butter was often taken away from ''gujjars'' (nomadic herdsmen) without payment by the officials''.'' [[File:Canal-kashmir 0.jpg|thumb|<nowiki>''</nowiki>Six Artistic views of Kashmir<nowiki>''</nowiki> by unidentified British painter. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin built canals to promote agriculture.]]

The famine of 1878–79 was deadly. Also, catching and eating of fish by men driven by hunger was made unlawful by an edict during the reign of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. Often anyone who killed a cow was boiled in oil and the hung from a hook which was fixed on to a pole in a public place. People did not possess any right to waste land and the only right which the villager had was that he could plant trees on such lands, and was the owner of the trees and not of land. Milk and butter was often taken away from ''gujjars'' (nomadic herdsmen) without payment by the officials''.'' [[File:Canal-kashmir 0.jpg|thumb|<nowiki>''</nowiki>Six Artistic views of Kashmir<nowiki>''</nowiki> by unidentified British painter. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin built canals to promote agriculture.]]

===Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri texts===

===Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri texts===

Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri scriptures/chronicles/travellers' accounts include:

* ''Rice'', which could be imported from other countries in times of famine.Patañjali's Mahabhashya reveals that rice was already being cultivated in the valley c.150 BC. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin diverted the waters of the Dal Lake into the Mar canal which he extended up to Shadipur where it emptied itself at the confluence of Jhelum and Indus. Owing to these irrigation works, and reclamation of large areas for cultivation, Kashmir became self-sufficient in rice production. The natives considered the hot water at Dewsur sacred, and said that when one wished to know if any undertaking will prosper, they must take an earthen vessel, fill it with rice, and having secured the mouth, so that water may be excluded, throw it into the holy font. If on coming up the rice was boiled, it was deemed a fortunate omen, but unpropitious if otherwise.

* ''Pilau'', yellow pilau, black pilau, shola pilau etc.

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* ''Holy Basil''.

* ''Salt'', a precious article and according to Ksemendra, consumed by the rich alone. Two varieties were found in the bazaars of Kashmir: rock salt from the Punjab, and powder salt, called ''bota nun'' from Ladakh.

* [[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 05.jpg|thumb|Kong (saffron from Kashmir), GI tag.]]''Saffron'', historians suggest Persian saffron corms were transplanted to Kashmiri soil after Persia conquered Kashmir. The first harvest occurred sometime prior to 500 BC. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller in his ''Travels in India'' (631 AD) says that saffron flowers were long used to adorn the neck of oxen at the autumn festival in the country of Kashmir. Reference has been made of Kashmiri saffron in the [[Ratnavali]] of Harsha. Buddhist tradition claims Mādhyandina, a disciple or companion of the Buddha's disciple Ānanda, introduced the saffron crocus in Kashmir. Kashmiri poet [[Bilhana]] in his Vikramanka Charitam says that the cultivation of saffron flowers in Kashmir originated from Takshaka Naga, a holy spring. A popular myth talks about how when a naga chieftain (a water god) fell sick with an eye complaint, he was cured by the ''vaidya'' of Padmapur (Pampore). In gratitude, the naga gave him a bulb of saffron and thus the locals began the cultivation.~~<ref name="Kesar: The cultural geography of Ka"/>~~ Ksemendra mentioned that traders used to earn a lot through trade in saffron, in his 11th century satire ''Samayamatrka''. In the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tradition, a ceremony was performed with saffron for warriors. The Persian historian Firishta (1612) mentions that the saffron of Kashmir was particularly good. At the time of Jehangir (1605–27), the annual crop was 18.5 tonnes, more than anywhere in the world.

* [[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 05.jpg|thumb|Kong (saffron from Kashmir), GI tag.]]''Saffron'', historians suggest Persian saffron corms were transplanted to Kashmiri soil after Persia conquered Kashmir. The first harvest occurred sometime prior to 500 BC. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller in his ''Travels in India'' (631 AD) says that saffron flowers were long used to adorn the neck of oxen at the autumn festival in the country of Kashmir. Reference has been made of Kashmiri saffron in the [[Ratnavali]] of Harsha. Buddhist tradition claims Mādhyandina, a disciple or companion of the Buddha's disciple Ānanda, introduced the saffron crocus in Kashmir. Kashmiri poet [[Bilhana]] in his Vikramanka Charitam says that the cultivation of saffron flowers in Kashmir originated from Takshaka Naga, a holy spring. A popular myth talks about how when a naga chieftain (a water god) fell sick with an eye complaint, he was cured by the ''vaidya'' of Padmapur (Pampore). In gratitude, the naga gave him a bulb of saffron and thus the locals began the cultivation. Ksemendra mentioned that traders used to earn a lot through trade in saffron, in his 11th century satire ''Samayamatrka''. In the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tradition, a ceremony was performed with saffron for warriors. The Persian historian Firishta (1612) mentions that the saffron of Kashmir was particularly good. At the time of Jehangir (1605–27), the annual crop was 18.5 tonnes, more than anywhere in the world.

* ''Clarified Butter'', lamps were prepared with ''ghee''. It was sold by itinerant sellers who went from door to door.[[File:Doodhpathri - Mustard fields on the way southwest Jammu Kashmir India.jpg|thumb|Mustard fields at Doodhpathri. Mustard oil has been a very important part of Kashmiri cooking since it replaced walnut oil.]]

* ''Oil''.~~<ref name="Ghai-2021"/>~~ Wooden oil presses constructed more than 200 years ago have been operating in Kashmir. Till the mid-1940s there were sixteen oil mills operating in Srinagar. Large quantities of dried apricots called ''Bote Chire'' were imported to Kashmir from Ladakh in the bygone days, and oil was pressed from their kernels at Kashmiri oil presses. The rapeseed oil was considered best for eating while walnut and almond oil were also used. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the cultivation of mustard plants grew considerably in Kashmir, and the use of walnut oil fell considerably.

* ''Oil''. Wooden oil presses constructed more than 200 years ago have been operating in Kashmir. Till the mid-1940s there were sixteen oil mills operating in Srinagar. Large quantities of dried apricots called ''Bote Chire'' were imported to Kashmir from Ladakh in the bygone days, and oil was pressed from their kernels at Kashmiri oil presses. The rapeseed oil was considered best for eating while walnut and almond oil were also used. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the cultivation of mustard plants grew considerably in Kashmir, and the use of walnut oil fell considerably.

* ''Gold Dust''.

* ''Curd''.

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* ''Mead''.

* ''Rum'', from treacle.

* ''Wine'', called ''mas'' in Kashmiri language. Kashmir was the only part of India where wine was made from the juice of the grape, a fact to be attributed rather to its acescent quality, than to any scarcity of fruit. A wine culture inflected by Hellenism thrived in Kashmir in the early centuries AD. At the beaded ring of a statue of goddess Lakshmi in a distinctively Gandharan style discovered by Frenchman Albert Foucher near the village of Brar in Bandipora in 1896, one can see clusters and foliage of vines.In the ''Mulasarvastivada vinaya'', a Buddhist text from the first half of the 2nd century AD, some monks travel in the Northwest and a ''yakṣa'' presents them with some grapes, which are said to be from Kashmir and apparently a great novelty. The Buddha explains that they can be eaten after purifying them with a burning ember, and that people can also make juice/syrup from them. For Abhinavagupta, alcohol which came from grape was splendour to a supreme degree. He praised the wine of his native Kashmir as ''mahabhairava'' (the mercurial essence). Jayaratha cautions against mixing it with any other ingredient, for the reason that its effectiveness would be quite limited. [[Lalitaditya Muktapida|Lalitaditya]] was so intoxicated with wine he told his ministers that if they wished to increase the beauty of his city, they should burn ''Pravarapura'', the city built by king Sri Pravarasena of the [[Alchon Huns]] and his orders could not be disobeyed.There are many references which show that making and drinking wine was not prohibited during the early Sultanate period even though it was strongly disapproved of by the orthodox section of the society. It was a common sight to see laymen and Brahman priests alike in a state of drunkenness during Hindu festivals. Despite the Islamic ban on alcohol, the Muslims, who participated in these festivals, also freely partook of wine. Zainul Abidin took it in moderation, but Haider Shah was a confirmed drunkard.~~<ref name="Qadri-2024" />~~ [[Sikandar Butshikan]], or the ''destroyer of idols'' (c.1416) prohibited vending wine in Kashmir. The indigenous vines were generally planted at the foot of poplar and ran up to the height of fifty or sixty feet, bearing an abundance of fruit. After harvesting grapes in October, they were kept in shallow earthen vessels till spring, then they were applied to the fabrication of wine, vinegar and brandy. In 1815, the early wine writer André Jullien compared Kashmiri wine to madeira. Maharaja Ranbir Singh introduced vines from Bordeaux in France and Marion Doughty, a woman who visited Kashmir in 1900 wrote that the Medoc and B''arsac'' were both strengthening and pleasant to taste''.'' ''Anguri'' and ''qandi'' were the cherished drinks of singers.

* ''Wine'', called ''mas'' in Kashmiri language. Kashmir was the only part of India where wine was made from the juice of the grape, a fact to be attributed rather to its acescent quality, than to any scarcity of fruit. A wine culture inflected by Hellenism thrived in Kashmir in the early centuries AD. At the beaded ring of a statue of goddess Lakshmi in a distinctively Gandharan style discovered by Frenchman Albert Foucher near the village of Brar in Bandipora in 1896, one can see clusters and foliage of vines.In the ''Mulasarvastivada vinaya'', a Buddhist text from the first half of the 2nd century AD, some monks travel in the Northwest and a ''yakṣa'' presents them with some grapes, which are said to be from Kashmir and apparently a great novelty. The Buddha explains that they can be eaten after purifying them with a burning ember, and that people can also make juice/syrup from them. For Abhinavagupta, alcohol which came from grape was splendour to a supreme degree. He praised the wine of his native Kashmir as ''mahabhairava'' (the mercurial essence). Jayaratha cautions against mixing it with any other ingredient, for the reason that its effectiveness would be quite limited. [[Lalitaditya Muktapida|Lalitaditya]] was so intoxicated with wine he told his ministers that if they wished to increase the beauty of his city, they should burn ''Pravarapura'', the city built by king Sri Pravarasena of the [[Alchon Huns]] and his orders could not be disobeyed.There are many references which show that making and drinking wine was not prohibited during the early Sultanate period even though it was strongly disapproved of by the orthodox section of the society. It was a common sight to see laymen and Brahman priests alike in a state of drunkenness during Hindu festivals. Despite the Islamic ban on alcohol, the Muslims, who participated in these festivals, also freely partook of wine. Zainul Abidin took it in moderation, but Haider Shah was a confirmed drunkard. [[Sikandar Butshikan]], or the ''destroyer of idols'' (c.1416) prohibited vending wine in Kashmir. The indigenous vines were generally planted at the foot of poplar and ran up to the height of fifty or sixty feet, bearing an abundance of fruit. After harvesting grapes in October, they were kept in shallow earthen vessels till spring, then they were applied to the fabrication of wine, vinegar and brandy. In 1815, the early wine writer André Jullien compared Kashmiri wine to madeira. Maharaja Ranbir Singh introduced vines from Bordeaux in France and Marion Doughty, a woman who visited Kashmir in 1900 wrote that the Medoc and B''arsac'' were both strengthening and pleasant to taste''.'' ''Anguri'' and ''qandi'' were the cherished drinks of singers.

* ''Maireya Wine'', a spicy wine perfumed by camphor, and made out of fruits and flowers with a natural sugar base.

* ''Asava Wine'', decocted extracts or cold infusion extracts of different herbs fermented with flowers of ''dhataki'' (''woodfordia fruticosa'').

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* ''Vinegar'', Kashmiris made various pickles with it, the best of which was garlic, according to Jehangir.

* ''Flour cakes'', fine flour could become expensive.

* ''Spirit from Grapes'',~~<ref name="Forster-1798"/>~~ liquor (''mrdvika'') was drunk with incantation and blessing.

* ''Spirit from Grapes'', liquor (''mrdvika'') was drunk with incantation and blessing.

* ''Spirit from Datura (Thorn-Apple).''

* ''Sesame'' Oil was extracted from it

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* ''Green vegetables''

== Ingredients and seasoning ==

== Ingredients and seasoning ==

===Meat===

[[File:Sheep , Gangabal Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Local sheep in Gangabal, Kashmir.]]Apart from chicken, fish and game, Kashmiris use only mutton (meat of mature sheep) or goat's meat. More than 75% of sheep population are cross breeds and are generally called Kashmir Merino that provides the dual purpose of meat and wool. The ''Bakkarwal'' (nomadic herders) goats belong to the rare Kaghani breed, prized as one of the world's best in terms of meat.

Beef is consumed in towns and villages of Kashmir more so for its affordability. In some villages, beef-eaters are huddled separately from those supposed to be served mutton during ''wazwan'' feasts. There is a class divide between people who eat ''kat maaz'' ("small meat", mutton) considered elite and more sophisticated, and those who eat ''bad maaz'' ("big meat", beef), considered lower-class. The biggest rabbit breeding farm in North India sprawls on six hectares of land in Wussan village of Baramulla district of Kashmir. The consumption of rabbit meat as a substitute for sheep and goat meat among the general masses is becoming popular. People with cardiac problems eat rabbits as the meat is considered lean and white with high nutritious value.

The local geese of Kashmir (''Kashmir Aenz'') is the first and only recognised domestic geese breed in India. Geese rearing in the Valley dates back to ancient time as has been mentioned by Sir Walter R. Lawrence in his book 'The Valley of Kashmir'. In Srinagar, geese are mainly sold in Batmaloo and Lal Chowk, by vendors, who purchase geese from rearers in villages and sell them live or slaughtered in the city.~~<ref name="Hamadani-2018" />~~ In affluent families, geese pickles would also be made and kept aside for winter use.

The local geese of Kashmir (''Kashmir Aenz'') is the first and only recognised domestic geese breed in India. Geese rearing in the Valley dates back to ancient time as has been mentioned by Sir Walter R. Lawrence in his book 'The Valley of Kashmir'. In Srinagar, geese are mainly sold in Batmaloo and Lal Chowk, by vendors, who purchase geese from rearers in villages and sell them live or slaughtered in the city. In affluent families, geese pickles would also be made and kept aside for winter use.

===Fish===

[[File:Fish farm kokernag.jpg|thumb|Rainbow and brown trout farm at Kokernag]]

The Duke of Bedford helped to send 10,000 trout eggs from the UK in 1899 but they perished on the way. A second consignment arrived from Scotland the next year. The rainbow and brown trout adapted well to the Kashmir valley, while the indigenous snow trout continues to flourish. Locally known as ''alegaad'', it can be found in both standing and flowing water bodies throughout the valley. There were 137 private fish farms in just Anantnag district, which was declared as the 'Trout District of India'.

===Eggs===

Poultry farms are set on European standards, as Kashmir has similar geo-climatic conditions. Using permaculture and [[no-dig gardening]] technique, free-range eggs are being sold every day. People collect chick varieties like Kalinga brown, Vanraja, Kashmir Commercial Layer, etc. to dish out a regular supply of organic brown eggs. The Kashmir Duck (''batook'') is reared for its eggs in all districts of the valley with highest population in Bandipora district, followed by Kupwara, Barmulla, Srinagar and others.

Kalij pheasant (''wan kokur'') lays between 6 and 10 eggs per clutch, and are perfect served soft-boiled in their olive-green shells with a mere sprinkle of celery salt and buttered soldiers.

===Cereals===

People in Kashmir eat different varieties of rice including the nutty and fragrant ''Mushk Budji'', grown in the higher reaches of the Kashmir valley. In February 2022, ''Mushk Budji'' rice got the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. This cooked rice is unique and possesses a harmonious blend of taste, aroma and rich organoleptic properties.~~<ref name="Majid-2024" />~~ Kashmiri red rice, locally called ''Zaag Batt'', is grown in a small village called Tangdhar on the border with Pakistan. The small unpolished grains are sought for their superior texture and taste. In 2009, farmers in the region harvested the legendary Basmati rice for the first time.[[File:Kohlraabi and Kashmiri saag.jpg|thumb|Monje Haakh ([[kohlrabi]]).]] [[File:Kashmiri Garlic.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri garlic]]

People in Kashmir eat different varieties of rice including the nutty and fragrant ''Mushk Budji'', grown in the higher reaches of the Kashmir valley. In February 2022, ''Mushk Budji'' rice got the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. This cooked rice is unique and possesses a harmonious blend of taste, aroma and rich organoleptic properties. Kashmiri red rice, locally called ''Zaag Batt'', is grown in a small village called Tangdhar on the border with Pakistan. The small unpolished grains are sought for their superior texture and taste. In 2009, farmers in the region harvested the legendary Basmati rice for the first time.[[File:Kohlraabi and Kashmiri saag.jpg|thumb|Monje Haakh ([[kohlrabi]]).]] [[File:Kashmiri Garlic.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri garlic]]

[[File:Collard Plants.jpg|thumb|''Koshur haakh'', local collard greens.]]

===Vegetables===

[[File:Vegetable seller on Dal Lake..JPG|thumb|Floating vegetable market on Dal Lake]]

The most important and frequently used Kashmiri vegetables are: ''haakh'' (collard greens or kale), ''monj Haak'' ( [[kohlrabi]]), ''tsochael''(mallow), ''bamchoont'' (quince), ''kral mound'' (shepherds purse), ''saze posh'' (holly hock), ''nadur'' (lotus stem), ''praan'' (shallots), ''aubuj'' (sorrel), ''mawal'' (cockscomb), ''wushkofur'' (camphor), ''tila gogul'' (mustard) and ''gor'' (water-chestnut). The floating vegetable garden on the Dal Lake is the second largest wholesale market in the world. Men, young and old, on their wooden boats, argue about the price of plump pumpkins and gourds as they share cigarettes or hookahs. The water of Kashmir is sweeter, and that affects the taste and flavour of vegetables. The items for sale include tomatoes, carrots, cucumbers, turnips, water chestnuts, leafy vegetables, and the famous ''nadur''. A porous and fibrous lake vegetable, ''nadur'' has grown to become an irreplaceable ingredient in a traditional Kashmiri kitchen. Local accounts date its discovery to the 15th-century sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, who was introduced to the chewy delicacy while on a shikara ride on the Gil Sar lake located in the exteriors of Srinagar.~~<ref name=Barua/>~~ Also, according to a popular legend, the yarn threads that Lalla Ded (1320–1392), the Kashmiri mystic saint wove were thrown into the Dal Lake when her tyrant mother-in-law ridiculed and taunted her for yarning it too thin. These got changed into the fibres of ''nadur'' for eternity.

The most important and frequently used Kashmiri vegetables are: ''haakh'' (collard greens or kale), ''monj Haak'' ( [[kohlrabi]]), ''tsochael''(mallow), ''bamchoont'' (quince), ''kral mound'' (shepherds purse), ''saze posh'' (holly hock), ''nadur'' (lotus stem), ''praan'' (shallots), ''aubuj'' (sorrel), ''mawal'' (cockscomb), ''wushkofur'' (camphor), ''tila gogul'' (mustard) and ''gor'' (water-chestnut). The floating vegetable garden on the Dal Lake is the second largest wholesale market in the world. Men, young and old, on their wooden boats, argue about the price of plump pumpkins and gourds as they share cigarettes or hookahs. The water of Kashmir is sweeter, and that affects the taste and flavour of vegetables. The items for sale include tomatoes, carrots, cucumbers, turnips, water chestnuts, leafy vegetables, and the famous ''nadur''. A porous and fibrous lake vegetable, ''nadur'' has grown to become an irreplaceable ingredient in a traditional Kashmiri kitchen. Local accounts date its discovery to the 15th-century sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, who was introduced to the chewy delicacy while on a shikara ride on the Gil Sar lake located in the exteriors of Srinagar. Also, according to a popular legend, the yarn threads that Lalla Ded (1320–1392), the Kashmiri mystic saint wove were thrown into the Dal Lake when her tyrant mother-in-law ridiculed and taunted her for yarning it too thin. These got changed into the fibres of ''nadur'' for eternity.

Sun-dried vegetables, locally known as ''hokh syun'', are consumed as fresh produce dwindles. During summer, vegetables are peeled, chopped, salted and sun-dried to preserve them for winter.~~<ref name="moneycontrol.com"/>~~ The various varieties of ''hokh syun'' include dried tomatoes (''ruwangun haech''), dried fenugreek leaves (''meeth''), dried lotus stem (''nadir haech''), dried Iberian knapweed (''kretch''), dried shallot leaves (''praan''), dried mint (''pudna''), dried bottle gourd (''al haech''), dried turnip slices (''gogji haech''), dried quince (''bamchount haech''), dried collard greens (''hoech haak'') and dried spinach (''hoech palak''). In the Charar Sharief area of central Kashmir, dried pears, locally known as ''tang haech'' are considered a delicacy.

Sun-dried vegetables, locally known as ''hokh syun'', are consumed as fresh produce dwindles. During summer, vegetables are peeled, chopped, salted and sun-dried to preserve them for winter. The various varieties of ''hokh syun'' include dried tomatoes (''ruwangun haech''), dried fenugreek leaves (''meeth''), dried lotus stem (''nadir haech''), dried Iberian knapweed (''kretch''), dried shallot leaves (''praan''), dried mint (''pudna''), dried bottle gourd (''al haech''), dried turnip slices (''gogji haech''), dried quince (''bamchount haech''), dried collard greens (''hoech haak'') and dried spinach (''hoech palak''). In the Charar Sharief area of central Kashmir, dried pears, locally known as ''tang haech'' are considered a delicacy.

Shallots, known as ''praan'', stand out, lending its unique flavour to a multitude of Kashmiri dishes, from soups and stews, to curries and kebabs. Many of Mughal Emperor Akbar's feasts in the 16th century featured shallots. Buthoo village has earned renown for producing prized organic shallots. [[Snow Mountain garlic]], also known as Kashmiri garlic, is a rare single-clove variety of ''Allium sativum''. The clove beneath is bright white to creamy-white color and offers a strong, pungent garlic flavour without the acidity present in other varieties.

Kashmir valley is the only place in India where asparagus grows. Until the 1960s, it was grown widely in Kashmir at Pulwama, Budgam, Rajbagh, Tangmarg and Gulmarg. As of now the area of asparagus cultivation is restricted to Tangmarg and Gulmarg.

===Sugar and sweeteners===

Sugarcane does not grow in Kashmir. Sugar was exclusively imported from erstwhile united Punjab up to 1947 but was among the costliest imports to Kashmir. The then Dogra government suggested cultivating sugar maple and beetroot sugar but it could not materialise. In the past, when sugar was not imported, people used honey. Delicate nectar of the acacia flowers makes for honey in Tral, Verinag and other locations. ''Sidr'' honey considered one of the most distinguished types of honey in the world, is obtained from ''Sidr'' (jujube) trees in the Kashmir Valley.

[[File:Kashmiri apples.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri apples.]]

===Fruits===

Kashmiri apple is famous for its juiciness and distinct flavour as well. In 2019 alone, Kashmir produced over 1.9 million metric tonnes of apples, the highest among Indian states. Further, Kashmir accounts for 90% of India's walnut production. Kashmiri walnuts are a great source of nutrients and widely in demand across the globe.~~<ref name=et/>~~ Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. Many years ago, walnut oil used to be a medium of cooking and imparted a sweeter and nuttier flavour to dishes.

Kashmiri apple is famous for its juiciness and distinct flavour as well. In 2019 alone, Kashmir produced over 1.9 million metric tonnes of apples, the highest among Indian states. Further, Kashmir accounts for 90% of India's walnut production. Kashmiri walnuts are a great source of nutrients and widely in demand across the globe. Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. Many years ago, walnut oil used to be a medium of cooking and imparted a sweeter and nuttier flavour to dishes.

[[File:Packing Strawberries (14574895731).jpg|thumb|The local climate with bright sunshine and moderate rainfall, is ideally suited for strawberry cultivation.]]

Muhammad Quli Afshar brought cherries from Kabul and planted them during Akbar's time. Mishri variety of cherry is famous in Kashmir and sweeter than other varieties. They are loaded with minerals, vitamins and plant compounds. The exotic berries from Kashmir are sweet and sour mulberry (''tuell'' and ''shah-tuell''), raspberry (''chhanchh''), barberry (''kaawducchh'') and red berry (''haapat maewaa''). Gassu area on the Srinagar outskirts is known for strawberry (''istaber'') harvesting.

Orange cultivation for commercial purposes was introduced a few decades before in the Urossa village in Uri. The climate and soil is relatively warmer than the rest of Kashmir and conducive for the crop. In this mountainous region, the micro-climate is good for Mediterranean crops like lemons and olives. The lemons are better and juicier than Punjab lemons. A sub-species of wild olives that doesn't bear much fruit but grows even in hardy, rough conditions is used for grafting with fruit varieties, producing about 1,000 litres of extra virgin olive oil each year.

According to official estimates, Kashmiri grapes are cultivated on almost 500 to 600 hectares of land with production up to 1100 to 1500 MT per year. [[File:Famous Kalaadi of Ramnagar.jpg|thumb|Dried cheese (''maish krej'') from Jammu & Kashmir.]]

===Dairy products===

Holstein Friesian (HF) and Jersey cows were introduced in Kashmir several decades ago, producing 4 million litres of milk per day. Organic Kashmiri butter wrapped in Chinar leaves was common in the yesteryears, but is now sold only by a few.

[[File:Saffron From Pampore.jpg|thumb|Saffron fields in Pampore.]]

===Spices===

[[File:Kashmiri Red Chilli.JPG|thumb|Kashmiri Chilli Pepper.]]

[[File:Caraway.JPG|thumb|Kashmiri black cumin.]]

Kashmiri saffron is known for its aroma, colour, and medicinal value. The saffron of Pampore town is considered to be of superior quality with 8.72% crocin content as compared to the Iranian variety which contains 6.82%. In May 2020, Kashmiri saffron was given a geographical indication tag. The spice ''shahi zeera'' or imperial cumin or black cumin belongs to Apiaceae (parsley) family and was initially available in the jungles of Gurez Valley. These darker seeds unlike the regular brown ''zeera'' are of superior quality because of their smell, relative rarity and shape.

Among the spices used:

* Kashmiri [[chilli pepper]] (''martswangun'') — chilies are grown locally in Kashmir. When they turn red, they are dried and ground into powder form. Powdered red chilies are moderately hot colouring agents that are used for most meat and some vegetarian dishes. The taste varies with the region they are being cultivated, from areas such as Bugam, Tangmarg, Bandipora, Dangerpora, Anantnag and Noorbagh. Chillies of Bugam are the most bitter in taste, while Noorbagh chillies have less seeds and are spicier than the ones grown in other areas. The local government has sought a geographical indication tag for chillies cultivated in Srinagar and Budgam districts.

* Shimla, Punjabi & Pepsi chilli pepper (''martswangun'') — Shimla variety is used for making spicy ''qormas'', while Pepsi is usually imported from Rajasthan in India, and resembles a Pepsi bottle.

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* silver leaf (''varak'') — tissue-thin edible silver sheets used for garnishing pulao and meat dishes.

Rock salt consumption is quite old in Kashmir. It was and is still being imported from Khewrah area of Pakistani Punjab, where it was first discovered by the troops of Alexander the Great in 326 B.C. Pre-independence, rock salt was imported via Mughal Road, which, before the advent of Mughals, was called ''Namak'' Route. After partition, its supply was barred.~~<ref name="Rock Salt Solution"/>~~ Because of its benefits, it is now being consumed by almost one-fourth of the population.

Rock salt consumption is quite old in Kashmir. It was and is still being imported from Khewrah area of Pakistani Punjab, where it was first discovered by the troops of Alexander the Great in 326 B.C. Pre-independence, rock salt was imported via Mughal Road, which, before the advent of Mughals, was called ''Namak'' Route. After partition, its supply was barred. Because of its benefits, it is now being consumed by almost one-fourth of the population.

==Specialties by season==

[[File:Cherry blossoms in Doodhpathri southwest Jammu Kashmir India.jpg|thumb|A fruit tree in Spring.]]

Spring is often considered a season of rejuvenation after a long and harsh winter. Picnics, of which the Kashmiris are very fond, are planned around the theme of food. The countryside is awash with white and pink flowers of almond (''badaam''), peach (''tsunun'') and cherry (''gilaas'') blossoms. The mustard fields join the show with their bright-yellow blooms. The pear (''tang'') blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers.~~<ref name="The Beauty of Kashmir in Spring"/>~~ Apricot (''Tser'') blossoms are white in colour, often tinged with a pink or reddish hue. They grow from late spring through early summer.~~<ref name="kashmirlife.net"/>~~ Beans are a spring vegetable. Cherries are a fruit of late spring and summer.Coriander (''danival'') is a cool herb whose season predominates between spring and summer in cooler areas. Garlic (''rohan'') is found mainly in spring and through fall season. Melons (''kharbooz'') are a fruit grown in spring and summer.~~<ref name="kashmirlife.net"/>~~ Tender spring-time ''haakh'' (collard greens) are called ''kaanul''.[[File:Taobat, Neelum valley, Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Trout fishing, such as here in the river Taobat in Kashmir, is open during the summer months.]]The season of harvesting lotus stem (''nadur'') starts in September. The ''samovar'' bubbles in a corner, spreading the sweet fragrance of saffron and cardamom in the air. Cookie-shaped ''kandi kulchas'' made of flour, butter, sugar and sprinkled with poppy seeds are passed around to be dipped into the tea and relished. Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area. Dandelion leaves, also known as ''haand'' in Kashmir, are foraged on foot. Going to the countryside, one can see paddy being cut with sickles and then stacked in huge piles to dry. Chestnuts are roasted in the dying embers. Bulbous garlic and red potatoes jostle for space. Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district. Going towards the hilly areas one can see the maize and walnut trees with their fruit getting ready to be harvested.~~<ref name="greaterkashmir.com"/>~~ Going towards the apple producing areas of Sopore in North Kashmir or Shopian in South Kashmir, one can see cartons of apple being transported to various parts of the country.

Spring is often considered a season of rejuvenation after a long and harsh winter. Picnics, of which the Kashmiris are very fond, are planned around the theme of food. The countryside is awash with white and pink flowers of almond (''badaam''), peach (''tsunun'') and cherry (''gilaas'') blossoms. The mustard fields join the show with their bright-yellow blooms. The pear (''tang'') blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers. Apricot (''Tser'') blossoms are white in colour, often tinged with a pink or reddish hue. They grow from late spring through early summer. Beans are a spring vegetable. Cherries are a fruit of late spring and summer.Coriander (''danival'') is a cool herb whose season predominates between spring and summer in cooler areas. Garlic (''rohan'') is found mainly in spring and through fall season. Melons (''kharbooz'') are a fruit grown in spring and summer. Tender spring-time ''haakh'' (collard greens) are called ''kaanul''.[[File:Taobat, Neelum valley, Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Trout fishing, such as here in the river Taobat in Kashmir, is open during the summer months.]]The season of harvesting lotus stem (''nadur'') starts in September. The ''samovar'' bubbles in a corner, spreading the sweet fragrance of saffron and cardamom in the air. Cookie-shaped ''kandi kulchas'' made of flour, butter, sugar and sprinkled with poppy seeds are passed around to be dipped into the tea and relished. Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area. Dandelion leaves, also known as ''haand'' in Kashmir, are foraged on foot. Going to the countryside, one can see paddy being cut with sickles and then stacked in huge piles to dry. Chestnuts are roasted in the dying embers. Bulbous garlic and red potatoes jostle for space. Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district. Going towards the hilly areas one can see the maize and walnut trees with their fruit getting ready to be harvested. Going towards the apple producing areas of Sopore in North Kashmir or Shopian in South Kashmir, one can see cartons of apple being transported to various parts of the country.

During the long winters the days are short, sunlight and electricity in short supply, so there is not much that can liven up existence except interesting food, so it constitutes a major interest of the Kashmiris' lives.~~<ref name="Sal: A Feast of Kashmiri Cuisine"/>~~ On window sills and terraces, one can spot small piles of aubergines, cherry tomatoes, gourds and turnips being sun-dried. There is ample time and the ''daan'' (Kashmiri traditional stove) with its twin stoves (''Chaer'' in Kashmiri) ignited by fire wood placed in one inlet) is always ready to oblige long hours of cooking despite the shortages of electricity. When all village roads remained blocked due to heavy snowfall and villagers have to use oil lamps or kerosene lanterns, the entire family is called to the kitchen where flavour of the overnight ''shab deg'' fills the entire space. Kohlrabi (''monje'') is cold tolerant, and continues to grow on the fields in winter, so much that a little frost even helps it.

During the long winters the days are short, sunlight and electricity in short supply, so there is not much that can liven up existence except interesting food, so it constitutes a major interest of the Kashmiris' lives. On window sills and terraces, one can spot small piles of aubergines, cherry tomatoes, gourds and turnips being sun-dried. There is ample time and the ''daan'' (Kashmiri traditional stove) with its twin stoves (''Chaer'' in Kashmiri) ignited by fire wood placed in one inlet) is always ready to oblige long hours of cooking despite the shortages of electricity. When all village roads remained blocked due to heavy snowfall and villagers have to use oil lamps or kerosene lanterns, the entire family is called to the kitchen where flavour of the overnight ''shab deg'' fills the entire space. Kohlrabi (''monje'') is cold tolerant, and continues to grow on the fields in winter, so much that a little frost even helps it.

==List of dishes==

Some noted Kashmiri dishes include:

===Barbecue===

[[File:Sheekh Kebabs.jpg|thumb|''Tujji'' and Kababs.]] [[File:Kabab wazwan.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri kababs can be eaten as a snack or a meal with rice.]]

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One version of the origin of kababs is the one in which Turkish soldiers were first known to grill chunks of meat on open fires. Kashmir's kababs are cooked with local spices and accompanied with dips:

* ''Kabab'', condimented minced meat, roasted or fried, on skewers. According to chef Ghulam Nabi Dar (aka ''Bitte Waaze''), the meat for the kabab is first minced with a very sharp knife (''haché au couteau''), then it requires an egg, cumin, cardamom and garlic, then it needs to be minced some more until it becomes a paste, then it is mounted on 1 m long skewers to be reheated the day after.

* ''Kokur kabab'', chicken kebab.

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* ''Kaleeng'', thick membrane that covers sheep's head, skull and all, chopped coarsely and set to cook with spices and minimal liquid over a low fire for hours.

===Breakfast===

===Breakfast===

For the average Kashmiri, breakfast normally means fresh bread from the local bakery and a cup of ''noon chai'' (salt tea). While the bread is there in all the seasons for the breakfast, its accompaniments change. Some affordable luxuries include:[[File:The Great Kashmiri Salt tea.png|thumb|Kashmiri noon chai.]]

* ''Harisa''. Made by specialised cooks called ''harisaguyr'', ''Harisa'' is a popular meat preparation made for breakfast, it is slow cooked with spices in a special underground oven for a 24-hour period and hand stirred. A good ''harisa'' entails a meticulous mincing of deboned mutton, mixed with local rice, fennel seeds, cinnamon, cardamom and salt. Cooked on sim fire for at least 6 to 8 hours, boiling smoky mustard oil and some milk is poured while the wooden masher continues to stir. Small kebabs are made to be served along with and also a small serving of Methi (lamb's intestines cooked in fenugreek) and tempered onion rings. The dish is so tasty that one 18th century Afghan governor, who came here during the Afghan Rule, is believed to have over-eaten himself to death.

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* ''Vushki vath'', barley meal porridge. Cooked as a staple food in some hilly villages of Kashmir, where rice or maize is not easily available or grown.

===Wazwan dishes===

[[File:TabakMaaz wazwan.jpg|thumb|Tabakhmaaz.]]

[[File:Kashmiri Aab Gosht.jpg|thumb|''Aab Gosh''.]]

Unlike most dishes of the Indian subcontinent where the flavour is added to the food while cooking on the flames, the wazwan flavours are added while the dish is still uncooked by adding flavoured water to the preparation or soaking in flavoured water (osmosis):

* ''Tabakhmaaz'', rib racks in ghee with sweet fat lodged between lacquered slips of meat Kashmiri Hindus commonly refer to this dish as ''Qabargah''. It seems to have travelled from Kazakhstan where it is known by its Pandit name, ''Qabargah''. While ''Qabargah'' is simmered on a low heat for a longer duration and then fried very quickly, ''Tabakhmaaz'' is boiled with salt and garlic and characterised by a slightly elastic texture.

* ''Tang ta lahabi kabab'', whole Kashmiri pears and mutton kababs that often go with a tomato-yoghurt gravy.

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* ''Kokur danival kormeh'', chicken cooked in curd based gravy, flavoured with saffron and fresh coriander.

===Soups===

===Soups===

* ''Tsatt/maaz rass'', mutton stock with mutton pieces flavoured with aromatic spices and salt.

* ''Channa rass'', easily made chickpea soup.

===Domestic meat stews===

[[File:Shabdeg Main Ingredients.JPG|thumb|''Shab deg'', the Kashmiri ''pot-au-feu'']]

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* ''Kokur shyaem'', chicken cutlets in yoghurt.

=== Innards and offal ===

* ''Chuste'', spicy dry curry of goat's intestines.

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* [[File:Goshtaba wazwan.jpg|thumb|''Goshtabeh''.]]''Pachi ta heri ras''s, cooked legs with hoofs, and head of sheep or goat.

===Meatballs===

The ''wazas'' are trained for years to learn the art of making the right cuts and grounding the meat to perfection. Traditionally, the lamb is mashed with walnut wood:[[File:Rista wazwan.jpg|thumb|Riste.]]

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* ''Safed riste'', Goshtabeh meatballs are the biggest, next rista and palak rista meatballs are the tiniest.

===Vegetarian sides===

Kashmir produces tons of vegetables and forest produce. The traditional dishes are:[[File:Kashmiri Dum aloo.jpeg|thumb|Dum Olav.]]

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* ''Variphali olav'', potato curry with hot lentil dumplings. This dish is a Punjabi preparation but very much enjoyed by Kashmiris.

===Mushrooms===

[[File:Morchella esculenta grouping 01.jpg|thumb|The much-prized ''kanaguchhi'' (''[[Morchella esculenta]]'')]]

Native to the Himalayan foothills, ''Guchhi'' or ''kanaguchhi'' mushrooms (species in the genus ''[[Morchella]]'', commonly known as ''morels'' elsewhere) are highly prized not only in Kashmir but internationally, particularly in European gastronomy. With the exception of a few very limited and experimental successes, efforts to [[Fungiculture|cultivate]] ''(kana)guchhi'' or ''morels'' at a large scale have been unsuccessful and consumption relies on the harvest of wild mushrooms. As a result, these mushrooms rank among the most expensive of all fungi, with a kilogram of such mushrooms costing up to 30,000 [[Indian rupee|INR]] in India (as of 2023; approximately €330/kg, or US$350/kg).

Traditional or well known dishes include:

* ''Kanaguchhi yakhean'', morels cooked in rich yoghurt gravy.

* ''Kanaguchhi matar masala'', an absolute flavour bomb of delicious morels picked by locals.

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* ''Shajkaan'', aka ''Kanpapar'' (''[[Geopora arenicola]]'') mushroom, fried with onions and tomatoes, or even prepared with milk.

===''Tschaman''===

[[Paneer]] is called ''tschaman'' in Kashmiri. The spicing falls into the sweet-savoury spectrum which means using a lot of cinnamon, mace and clove alongside earthier spices like cumin seed and ground coriander. The scarcity of fresh ginger in mountain geography also means that ground ginger is a spice staple.~~<ref name="sbs.com.au"/>~~ Paneer recipes are:

[[Paneer]] is called ''tschaman'' in Kashmiri. The spicing falls into the sweet-savoury spectrum which means using a lot of cinnamon, mace and clove alongside earthier spices like cumin seed and ground coriander. The scarcity of fresh ginger in mountain geography also means that ground ginger is a spice staple. Paneer recipes are:

* ''Tschaman Kanti'', cubes of cottage cheese that are fried, tossed in select spices and stir fried with onions and tomatoes.

* ''Lyader Tschaman.'' ''lyadur'' means yellow which is due to the presence of turmeric, and tschaman is cottage cheese. The term 'yellow gravy' might not do justice to the complexity of flavor you get from layering nine spices, some of them whole, with green chilies and simmering them in water before thickening the sauce with milk. British Indian chef Romy Gill called it 'a bowl of golden yellow deliciousness'.

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* ''Tschaman Vangan'', panir and brinjals.

===Chutneys and ''raitas''===

===Chutneys and ''raitas''===

Called the shadowy underbelly of the Kashmiri wazwan, they add real colour to the dishes. They are expected to be served free, when Kashmiris go out to eat or pack food. The varieties of spicy spreads are:

* ''Zamut Dodh'', plain homemade yoghurt.

* ''Muj Chetein'', translates to radish in yoghurt. A unique blend of grated radish and yoghurt, seasoned with a pinch of roasted cumin. The Kashmiri version of the quintessential ''raita''.

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* ''Dodh Al/Al Raita'', bottle Gourd in yoghurt.

===Meat stir-fries===

===Meat stir-fries===

* ''Mutton/Chicken Kanti'', small boneless mutton/chicken pieces, marinated, shallow fried in fresh onions, tomatoes and green chillies.

* ''Matsch Barith Karel'', bitter gourd stuffed with minced lamb.

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* ''Kaed Pakora'', brain fritters.

===Fish===

===Fish===

The age-old practice of shadow fishing is locally known as ''Tchaayi Gaad'' in Anchar lake in the Soura vicinity of Srinagar city. Fishermen row their boats early in the morning, breaking the frozen part of the lake to catch fish with a harpoon. They create a shadow on the nook of their boat by hiding themselves under a blanket or a makeshift umbrella made of straw to attract the fish and later strike the approaching fish with the harpoon. The banks of the lake of yore used to be dotted with thickets of willow trees under whose shadow the fish would take refuge during summers, thereby easing the task for the local fishermen to catch them. Common fish dishes are:

* ''Nader ti Gaad'', fish (''Bilose'', ''Zob'', ''Indian Major Carp'', ''Catla'', ''Rohu'', ''Margarita'', ''Mahseer'', ''Snow Trout'', ''Niger'', ''Chush'', ''Khront'', ''Churu'' etc.) cooked with lotus stem, a delicacy cooked on festival days like Eid, Navroze and Gaadi Batti (Festival of Kashmiri Pandits).

* ''Mujh Gaad'', a dish of radishes with a choice of fish.

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* ''Gaad Ta Obuj'', wild ''obuj''(rumex obtusifolius) with fish.

* ''Hogada Ta Haakh/Bum'', dried fish (''bolinao'' and others) with 'karam' saag or dried water-lily stems.

* ''Kanz Ta Gaad/Guran'', fish or small fish or very small dried fish, cooked with slightly fermented but non-alcoholic drink ''sadre kaenz''.~~<ref name=Kilam1991/><ref name="Sal: A Feast of Kashmiri Cuisine"/>~~ In the old days, when one family in a neighbourhood would make ''kaenz'' it was understood it belonged equally to the rest to be used whenever required. The heat of the generously used spices like chili and ginger powder in this popular dish is supposed to be tempered by the cooling effect of this rice beer-like brew.

* ''Kanz Ta Gaad/Guran'', fish or small fish or very small dried fish, cooked with slightly fermented but non-alcoholic drink ''sadre kaenz''. In the old days, when one family in a neighbourhood would make ''kaenz'' it was understood it belonged equally to the rest to be used whenever required. The heat of the generously used spices like chili and ginger powder in this popular dish is supposed to be tempered by the cooling effect of this rice beer-like brew.

* ''Fari/Phari'', smoked fish. A winter delicacy prepared in a particular method by only a few remaining households in Srinagar's Tiploo Mohalla. The fish used is a variety of trout belonging to the genus ''Schizothorax''.

* ''Phari Ta Haakh'', smoked fish with collard greens. The skin of the smoked fish is removed and it is fried until it turns reddish-brown. The fish is added to collard greens and cooked until all the water is absorbed and oil floats on top.~~<ref name="lifestyle.livemint.com"/>~~ Best had with steamed rice, and best not to reheat the dish.

* ''Phari Ta Haakh'', smoked fish with collard greens. The skin of the smoked fish is removed and it is fried until it turns reddish-brown. The fish is added to collard greens and cooked until all the water is absorbed and oil floats on top. Best had with steamed rice, and best not to reheat the dish.

===Salads===

===Salads===

* ''Salaad'', a plate of sliced vegetables precisely cucumber, tomatoes and carrots, decorated in concentric circles on a plate. A side with lemon squeezed on top.

* ''Razmah Salaad/Chat,'' kidney beans salad.

===Rice===

[[File:Kashmiri pulao (cropped).JPG|thumb|Kashmiri polav.]]

Kashmiris eat much more rice than the people of the Jammu region:

* ''Batta'', steamed white rice.

* ''Buzz Batta'', fried rice.

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* ''Byael Tomul'', leftover fermented newly sprouted paddy seeds yield this delicious snack. It is sun-dried and baked in an earthen vessel placed upon a ''choola'' (oven), cooled and pounded in a wooden mortar. After cleaning the husk, it is eaten with dry walnut kernels and salt tea.

===Breads===

===Breads===

* ''Kinke Tschut'', a whole wheat unleavened flatbread cooked on a griddle.

* ''Parott'', a buttery flatbread. A one-kilo paratha is served outside a Sufi shrine in Kashmir. Celebrity chef Sanjeev Kapoor has stated he used to make ''rumali roti'' but not such a big paratha.

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* ''Vushki Tschut'', baked rounds of barley flour.

===Eggs===

===Eggs===

In certain rural areas, the tradition of putting an egg or two in ''kanger'' (fire pot) is known to each individual. The fragrance of an egg cooking in the ''kanger'' would trigger the enzymes signalling the egg is ready:

* ''Thool Mond'', omelette.

* ''Haak Ta Thool'', collard greens and Eggs together.

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* [[File:Capra falconeri hepteneri.jpg|thumb|''Markhor'' (''capra falconeri'').]]''Thool Ta Obuj'', kashmiri ''obuj'', a wild growing plant with a sour taste, with eggs.

===Game (''shikaar'')===

[[File:Ducks on Lake Dal, Kashmir (8142492655).jpg|thumb|Ducks on Dal Lake.]]

Going by estimates, on an average 50-60 birds are killed every day in wetlands across Kashmir: Hunted game (''shikaar'') is not generally cooked immediately. It has to be hung for some days (''faisander'') before dressing it for cooking. Hanging makes the meat suppler and less fibrous, making it tastier to eat.

In British India, ''markhor'' (screw horn goat) was considered to be among the most challenging game species. It is the largest wild goat in the world. It is locally regarded as the tastiest wild meat.

Indian wild boar was introduced in the Himalayan region by Maharaja Gulab Singh, a Dogra military general. Its meat was a great delicacy for the Dogras and Sikhs, but after 1947 its population started dwindling in the Muslim-majority region.

Game dishes are:

* ''Pacchin Dumpokhta'', pintail. Called the king of the winter cuisine in Kashmir, it is a delicacy enjoyed by Kashmiri Pandits who would not normally eat chicken. The migratory bird looks like a duck but can fly with great speed. It comes to wetlands of Kashmir during winter. It is deep fried and cooked with hot spices.> The meat under the shining bluish golden feathers is tough but delicious and has a warming effect.

* ''Batook Palak'', duck with spinach.

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[[File:Goji Rajma Masala (11962820385).jpg|thumb|''Razmah Gogjee'', red kidney beans with sweet turnips.]]

===Dals===

===Dals===

Kashmiri Pandits who were vegetarian and did not even eat onions and tomatoes were known as ''Dal Battas'' (Dal Pandits):

* ''Dal Nadur'', Lotus stem boiled with green beans to make a dal.

* ''Vaari Muth Dal'', Black Turtle Beans (Kashmiri Vaari Muth).

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* ''Vangun Hachi Ta Moonge Dal'', Dried brinjals with moong.

===Fermented foods===

===Fermented foods===

Various varieties of Kashmiri pickles are:

* ''Aanchar'', pickles (chicken, mutton, fish, greylag goose,~~<ref name="Ahmed-2006"/>~~ mango, cherry, bitter gourd, amla, apple, apricot, plum, garlic, turnip, chillies, knol-khols, radishes, carrots, onions, cauliflowers, brinjals, lotus roots, green almonds, hard pears, grapes).

* ''Aanchar'', pickles (chicken, mutton, fish, greylag goose, mango, cherry, bitter gourd, amla, apple, apricot, plum, garlic, turnip, chillies, knol-khols, radishes, carrots, onions, cauliflowers, brinjals, lotus roots, green almonds, hard pears, grapes).

===Street food===

===Street food===

[[File:Kashmiri street food (8139530127).jpg|thumb|''Nadur maunj'' (lotus stem fritters).]]

* ''Makai Waet'', roasted corn.

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* ''Kruhun Masale/Dub Maha'', a poor man's shawarma, a thin ''lavas'' is made of refined flour in which boiled chickpeas are rolled and then dipped in tomato chutney.

* ''Razmah Masale'', ''rajma'' with corn.

* ''Masale Tschot'', chickpea masala spread over a ''lavas'' (kashmiri naan). The preparation for making ''masaal'' begins during the night or early hours of the morning. Then different kinds of chutneys or sauces are prepared.~~<ref name="aa.com.tr"/>~~ Radish chutney mixed with fresh curd, green chilli, coriander, pepper and salt is served with it and lastly the soft bread is used for wrapping.

* ''Masale Tschot'', chickpea masala spread over a ''lavas'' (kashmiri naan). The preparation for making ''masaal'' begins during the night or early hours of the morning. Then different kinds of chutneys or sauces are prepared. Radish chutney mixed with fresh curd, green chilli, coriander, pepper and salt is served with it and lastly the soft bread is used for wrapping.

* ''Egg Roll''

* ''Dastar Katlam'', famous ''halwai'' food.

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* ''Jalgoz'', peanuts.

===Cheese===

The nomadic shepherds of the Kashmir valley, ''Gujjars'' and ''Bakerwals'' move their herd of dairy cattle and their own settlements up and down the mountains based on changing seasons:

* ''Maesh Crari''., described as ''the mozzarella of Kashmir''. The discs are first coated with chilli, turmeric and salt, and then fried in mustard oil until they form a crisp, golden outer layer and the inside stays soft and creamy.

* ''Kudan'', a rare Gujjar goat cheese that looks like paneer but is more crumbly and akin to feta. Kudan is prepared in Bakerwal tents by heating some mustard oil in a pot on fire and then mixing some salt, turmeric and chilli along with the ''kudan'' cheese curds. Everything melts together into a golden liquid flecked with red chilli and small nuggets of ''kudan''.

===Desserts===

Kashmiris are fond of sugar.~~<ref name="Life"/>~~ Common sweetmeats are:

Kashmiris are fond of sugar. Common sweetmeats are:

* ''Halwa'', sweetmeat originally made of honey, camel's milk, cashew nuts, and many other ingredients and brought from the Persian Gulf, ''via'' Bombay, in saucers to United India in the nineteenth century. ''Halwa'' tradition reached Kashmir towards the end of the nineteenth century.

* ''Chounth Halwa''.

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* ''Dry Fruit Kulfi''.

===English pastry===

===English pastry===

Before 1918, Abdul Ahad Bhat, of Ahdoos, was under the tutelage of English bakers at Nedou's, a hotel in Srinagar owned by Austro-Swiss Michael Nedou. He quickly picked up the art of baking, and started a small bakery, the first by a Kashmiri at that time. Ahdoos's forte was English goodies, and as India inched towards freedom from British Rule he added Kashmiri items to the menu.~~<ref name="Bread, butter and bakerkhani"/>~~ Mughal Darbar was established on Residency Road in 1984 and on the road parallel is Jee Enn, founded by Ghulam Nabi Sofi in 1972. Many of the owners and staff of these new bakeries have trained in Ahdoos. The variety of pastries include:

Before 1918, Abdul Ahad Bhat, of Ahdoos, was under the tutelage of English bakers at Nedou's, a hotel in Srinagar owned by Austro-Swiss Michael Nedou. He quickly picked up the art of baking, and started a small bakery, the first by a Kashmiri at that time. Ahdoos's forte was English goodies, and as India inched towards freedom from British Rule he added Kashmiri items to the menu. Mughal Darbar was established on Residency Road in 1984 and on the road parallel is Jee Enn, founded by Ghulam Nabi Sofi in 1972. Many of the owners and staff of these new bakeries have trained in Ahdoos. The variety of pastries include:

* ''Chicken or Mutton Patty'', meat seasoned with salt, pepper and garlic, encased in layered puff pastry.

* ''Puffs''.

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* ''Walnut Fudge'', an exclusivity of Kashmir's Moonlight Bakery, the recipe contains 'snow-white walnuts' from Uri and honey and dates from local market.

===Qandarwan===

The Kashmir Valley is noted for its bakery tradition, that of the ''qandarwan''. Nowhere else in the Indian subcontinent can be found such a huge variety of leavened breads, another pointer to the Central Asian influence on Kashmiris' food habits. On the [[Dal Lake]] in Kashmir or in downtown Srinagar, bakery shops are elaborately laid out. Bakers sell various kinds of breads with golden brown crusts topped with sesame and poppy seeds.

Different kinds of traditional Kashmiri breads include:

* ''Tsoet'' and ''Tsoechvor/Tilvor'' are crisp and flaky small round breads topped with ''khaskhash'' (poppy) and ''til'' (sesame) seeds. A local bagel of about three inches diameter and six inches circumference, the upper half is soft and the lower crust is crispy. It is the evening/afternoon bread.

* ''Sheermal'', a saffron flavoured traditional flatbread said to have originated in Iran. It is offered in both sweet and flavourful versions. The ''sheermal'' bread is usually dented with multiple patterns bordering on corresponding lines.

* ''Baqerkhayn'' (puff pastry), Kashmiri [[Bakarkhani|bakerkhani]] has a special place in Kashmiri cuisine. It is similar to a round naan in appearance, but crisp and layered, and sprinkled with sesame seeds. It is typically consumed hot during breakfast.

* ''Lavasa'', thin unleavened flat bread, white in colour, made of ''maida'' (finely-milled wheat flour). It is a paper-thin blistered naan.~~<ref name="Gull-2019" />~~ Some lavasas are soft while others are crispy.

* ''Lavasa'', thin unleavened flat bread, white in colour, made of ''maida'' (finely-milled wheat flour). It is a paper-thin blistered naan. Some lavasas are soft while others are crispy.

* ''Girda'', made with dough that has been fermented overnight, rolls of dough are flattened out by hand and finger impressions are pressed into it to give you lines that run down its length. ''Girda'' and ''lavas'' are served with butter.

* ''Kulcha'', baked exclusively with ghee, this small, hard, dry, crumbly bread, is usually round in shape. It is decorated by placing a peanut in the centre of the upper face.

* ''Roth khabar'', a cake-like sweet bread made in traditional tandoor and covered with dry fruits.

===Wazwan===

==Beverages==

==Beverages==

=== Noon Chai or Sheer Chai ===

Kashmiris are heavy tea drinkers. Kashmiris don't use the word "Kashmiri Chai". The word "''Noon''" in Kashmiri means salt. The most popular drink is a pinkish coloured salted tea called "[[Noon Chai|noon chai]]." It is made with black tea, milk, salt and [[bicarbonate of soda]]. The particular color of the tea is a result of its unique method of preparation and the addition of soda. The Kashmiri Hindus more commonly refer to this chai as "Sheer Chai." The [[Kashmiri Muslims]] refer to it as "Noon Chai" or "Namkeen Chai", both meaning salty tea.

Noon Chai or Sheer Chai is a common breakfast tea in Kashmiri households and is taken with breads like [[baqerkhani]] brought fresh from ''Qandur (Kashmiri : کاندر )'' or bakers. It is one of the most basic and essential food items in a Kashmiri household. Tea was as served in large [[samovar|samavar]]s. Now, the use of Samavars is limited to special occasions and normally kettles are used.

Nuts like almonds and pistachios and edible rose petals can also be added before serving and sometimes ''malai'' or fresh cream is added to give the tea viscosity and richness.

===Natural mineral water===

===Natural mineral water===

According to a 2022 study by the University of Kashmir, 87% of springs in Kashmir valley have excellent to good water quality. A large part of the society, particularly those living in rural and backward areas, depends on spring water. Most villagers believe spring water is the purest form of water due to a spiritual connection with the shrines.

From one of the oldest and purest spring waters of Kashmir, the Kokernag Spring, Bringi Spring Water has high alkalinity and is well balanced with minerals.

===Babribyol===

===Babribyol===

The ''Babribyol sharbat'' is a concoction of sweetened milk, rose water or ''Rooh Afza'' syrup, and soaked sweet basil seeds that are grown locally.

===Lyaess===

===Lyaess===

Made from yoghurt or kefir, Kashmiri lassi (''lyaess'') is a liquid, salty way to drink up yoghurt. The process of churning the buttermilk with a wooden ''choomph'' or churner is rhythmic and there is an art involved. The yoghurt has to be churned the right way, the buttery fats have to float to the top in a nice froth, the spices and dried mint leaves have to be just right.

===Sadr-e-kaenz===

===Sadr-e-kaenz===

This fermented rice water drink is supposed to be very good for a sluggish liver.

===Shahi Sheera===

===Shahi Sheera===

Made by extracting the juice of different berries, it is prepared at home during Ramadan. It features in 1977 Kashmiri film ''Arnimaal'' where guests are sipping on the beverage during wedding festivities.

==Food and beverage pairings==

==Food and beverage pairings==

The traditional Kashmiri wazwan, which comprises slow-cooked meat dishes is a wonderful pairing that enhances the spicy notes of whisky. The Loire Valley wine [[Sancerre]] goes well with Kashmiri ''goshtabeh''. A ripe fruity red works well with the full bodied ''roghan josh''. A recommended wine to try with is Montepulciano.

==Special occasions and festivals==

==Special occasions and festivals==

===Eid-ul-Fitr===

===Eid-ul-Fitr===

While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes ''khajur ka laddoo'' (date balls), ''babribyol'' (basil seeds), ''kulfi'', ''phirin'', ''seemni'', fruit chaat, fruit custard, ''kateer'' (a drink loaded with health benefits) and ''noon chai''.~~<ref name="Bashir-2022"/>~~ The smell of slow-cooked mutton hovers, fragrant and sultry in the air, and despite the familiar air of unpredictability in Srinagar, spirits are high and streets are filled with happy greetings of ''Eid Mubarak''.

While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes ''khajur ka laddoo'' (date balls), ''babribyol'' (basil seeds), ''kulfi'', ''phirin'', ''seemni'', fruit chaat, fruit custard, ''kateer'' (a drink loaded with health benefits) and ''noon chai''. The smell of slow-cooked mutton hovers, fragrant and sultry in the air, and despite the familiar air of unpredictability in Srinagar, spirits are high and streets are filled with happy greetings of ''Eid Mubarak''.

Eid-ul-Fitr marks the end of 30 days of Ramadan. After attending Eid prayers at a mosque or [[Eidgah]], families return home to welcome guests. A common tradition on Eid morning is serving [[Kahwah|Kehwa]] (saffron tea) and chai (milk tea), accompanied by an assortment of bakery items such as cakes, cookies, ghee tchot (a tandoor-baked flatbread), pastries, and savoury snacks like chicken and mutton patties.

Well-to-do families often prepare select [[Wazwan]] dishes, including kebabs, rista (meatballs in gravy), shami kebabs, and chicken pieces. Other delicacies like kanti (stir-fried meat), mutton or chicken tikki are served with sauces and green chutney (dhaniya chutney), especially when entertaining special guests like sons-in-law.

For lunch, rice is the staple, served with a variety of homemade dishes, almost all featuring meat. A notable preparation is yakhni, a traditional dish made with fresh curd and mild spices, offering a rich yet subtle flavor.

===Eid-ul-Adha===

===Eid-ul-Adha===

The day begins with the ''Fajr'' (dawn) prayer and a breakfast of bakery goods with ''dodh kehwa'' (milky green tea). As the festival draws to a close, most well-to-do families start placing orders with the ''wazas'' for the feast, which is cooked by chefs at their own places and then sold to the customers for serving at their homes. Sacrificial animals include Delhi Walla, Merino Cross, Bakerwal and Kashmiri varieties of sheep.

===Urs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood===

===Urs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood===

Only vegetarian food is supplied to devotees. Majority of people in Batmaloo and adjoining areas turn vegetarian and do not eat meat or chicken. They widely consume dried turnips (''gogji aare'') because it is believed, during Dawood's time, sundried turnips helped Kashmir survive a famine.

===Urs of Khwaja Masood Wali===

===Urs of Khwaja Masood Wali===

The people of Pampore cook dried vegetables, eggs, cheese and other food stuff except meat and invite their relatives, friends on lunch or dinner to keep the tradition of the saint alive.

===Urs of Dastageer Sahab===

===Urs of Dastageer Sahab===

In Khanyar and Sarai Bala areas of Srinagar, the devotees are seen outside the shrines where local and non-local business establishments install their carts and are seen selling the Kashmiri traditional food stuff. Pious men sing hearty hymns over offerings of dates and sweets.

===Urs of Raeshmol Saheb===

===Urs of Raeshmol Saheb===

People in Anantnag district in southern Kashmir quit eating meat as a mark of respect for the 16th century mystic. Rarely is a butcher shop open during these seven days. For three-and-a-half days each before and after the saint's Urs, people eat radish braised in tamarind.

===Herath===

===Herath===

For Kashmiri Pandits, the ''prasad'' offering at Shivratri puja is a charger piled high with rice, cooked lamb and fish, and a luscious raw fish in its entirety atop the pile.

===Har Navum===

===Har Navum===

On the 9th day of the month of ''ashad'', Pandits in Kashmir offer the deity Sharika yellow rice cooked with turmeric, a little oil and salt along with ''tsarvan'' (goat's liver).

=== Navreh ===

The festival of [[Navreh]], the Kashmiri [[New Year]], is incomplete without ''nadur''. A celebration often confused with the [[Nowruz]] of the [[Persians]] and [[Persianate culture]]s, Navreh is the welcoming of spring in the Northern hemisphere, and its date fluctuate, but always around to the [[March equinox]].

==Diaspora and fusion cuisines==

==Diaspora and fusion cuisines==

Tibetan exiles in Kashmir, including members of Tibet's small Muslim population live in Srinagar, mainly in a small area near the 18th-century Hari Parbat fort. Popular ''momo'' (beef dumplings) shops and Tibetan restaurants are run by their children.~~<ref name="asia.nikkei.com"/>~~ Tibetan options include Cantonese chicken and ''kumloo'' wonton, fried pasta stuffed with minced mushrooms.

Tibetan exiles in Kashmir, including members of Tibet's small Muslim population live in Srinagar, mainly in a small area near the 18th-century Hari Parbat fort. Popular ''momo'' (beef dumplings) shops and Tibetan restaurants are run by their children. Tibetan options include Cantonese chicken and ''kumloo'' wonton, fried pasta stuffed with minced mushrooms.

Kashmiri Sikh cuisine has a bit of influence from Punjab with onions and tomatoes, but the flavouring goes the Kashmiri way with elements such as ''badyaan'' (''saunf''). A large number of Indian tourists depend entirely on ''Vaishno Dhabas'', the Valley's generic non-A/C restaurants that serve all-vegetarian North Indian fare.

== Cooking methods ==

[[File:Wazwan prep.jpg|thumb|The master chefs, the ''waaze'' of Kashmir.]]Some Kashmiri cooking techniques are:

=== Blanching ===

The stalks of dandelion (''haand'') with their spiky-edged leaves have to blanched four times so that they bear no bitterness.

=== Convection ===

The traditional Kashmir food receives heat on two sides, top and bottom and the best results are obtained by slow heat using charcoal.

=== Braising ===

The leaves of Kashmiri ''haakh'' are braised in lots of water. It is very important to ensure that the ''haakh'' stays submerged underwater during the initial cooking process using a wooden spatula or large spoon to continuously push the greens down. Mustard oil, which is used extensively in Kashmiri cuisine, imparts an extra flavour to the dish.

[[File:Rista prep.jpg|thumb|Tenderising and preparing ''riste,'' one of the most important dishes in a Kashmiri feast.]]

===Court-bouillon===

Much of Kashmiri cooking relies on a fragrant meat stock. The main skill of a ''wazwan'' lies in the preparation of this stock made of onions and shallots. Freshly shaped meatballs (''rista'' and ''goshtabeh'') are poached in this lamb stock flavoured with cinnamon and black cardamom, and simmered.

===Tempering===

Whole spices must be fried in oil – clove, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves. Fried too little, and the dish will be lifeless, without fragrance. A second too much, and one will be left with nothing but bitterness. Hot ghee or mustard oil is poured on top and garnished with fried ''praan'' (shallots) paste & saffron extract.

===Caramelisation===

Sliced onions are fried until golden brown and pureed with minimal water.

===Emulsification===

The yoghurt must be fatty, thick.~~<ref name="theguardian.com"/>~~ Dried mint, just a pinch, is added right at the end to freshen the dish.

The yoghurt must be fatty, thick. Dried mint, just a pinch, is added right at the end to freshen the dish.

===Food colouring===

Relevant dishes are further enhanced in colour by saffron extract (''rogan josh'' and ''rista'') or ''mawal'' (dried cockscomb flower). Kashmiri chilli is also added in excess sometimes to produce a red colour. Tomato is incorrectly used as a substitute when ''mawal'' and ''rattanjot'' are not available. No authentic version cooked in Kashmir has tomatoes.

===Simmering===

The food gets its flavours and textures from the spices being slow cooked with ingredients until they let out their inherent juices and fats and melt together.

===Smoke point===

Smoking mustard oil is a treatment known as ''durust'', and gets it ready to use after cooling off.

===Dum cooking===

The cooking vessel in the ''shab deg'' is sealed with dough before being cooked over a simmering fire through the long winter night. Dum cooking was made popular by the Mughal courts around the 16th century.

===Tenderising===

''Goshtabeh'' and ''rista'', the two meatball dishes are rarely found outside the valley because their unique texture is enormously challenging. The sheep has to be freshly slaughtered and the meat pounded before rigor mortis sets. To incorporate air to make them light and fluffy, the meat undergoes a process of being folded while beaten.

===Cooking material===

The quality of pots is important, according to ''wosta'' (ustad) or chef Nazir Ahmed Aram. He says they must have the right content of copper. Using wood (walnut and apple are the best) is important too. Cooking on gas is not the same.

==Similarities with other cuisines==

==Similarities with other cuisines==

Much like Kashmir, its people, and its narrative traditions, Kashmiri cuisine too is an amalgam of influences from Central Asia, Persia, China, and the Indian subcontinent. Food recipes passed down from one culture to another are:

* ''Aab Gosh'' (Kashmiri). ''Abgoosht'' or ''Abgusht'' is more so a one-pot Persian comfort food that is a rustic dish with wholesome ingredients. It has been enjoyed by Persians for centuries.~~<ref name="ABGOOSHT آبگوشت"/>~~ There is a similar dish in Armenia, called Abgoosht stew, using beef instead of lamb.

* ''Aab Gosh'' (Kashmiri). ''Abgoosht'' or ''Abgusht'' is more so a one-pot Persian comfort food that is a rustic dish with wholesome ingredients. It has been enjoyed by Persians for centuries. There is a similar dish in Armenia, called Abgoosht stew, using beef instead of lamb.

* ''Batte'' (Kashmiri). Short-grain, sticky rice is called ''bata'' in Afghanistan.

* ''Harise'' (Kashmiri). ''Al Harees'' is a traditional Emirati dish consisting of wheat, meat(chicken) and salt. A simple, traditional Saudi dish using crushed wheat is called ''jareesh''. ''Harissa'', also known as ''herisseh'', ''harisa'' or ''keshkeg'' in Armenia is a wheat berry and meat porridge. The wheat, usually known as ''korkot'', is shelled making them quicker to cook. ''Boko Boko Harees'' in Burundian cuisine is a delicacy prepared with chicken, turmeric and bulgur wheat. ''Amritsari Hareesa'' is a famous dish of the winter season in Lahore, Pakistan and made with wheat and meat. It is seasoned with desi ghee and served with hot naan.

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* ''Nadur'' (Kashmiri). In Afghan cuisine, ''Qormah e Nadroo'' is an onion-and-tomato-based stew using lamb meat or veal, yogurt, lotus roots and coriander.

* ''Polav'' (Kashmiri). It looks as if ''pilaf'' was invented in Iran some time after the 10th century.The Turks call plain rice ''sade pilav''. Turkey sees ''pilav'' primarily as a side dish rather than a main course. Iran is famous for its ''polos'' made with aromatic ''domsiyah'' rice. The most characteristic ones are based on fruits such as cherries, quinces, or apricots. In Central Asia, the simplest recipe uses onions, meat and carrots. The extravagant court traditions of the Moghul school of cookery makes India home to some very elaborate ''pulaos''. Laborers from western India brought pilaf to the Caribbean, where it is garnished with butter, almonds and pimiento-stuffed green olives.

* ''Roth''(Kashmiri). The Afghan version of the universal West Asian and European sweet egg bread is called ''rot''.~~<ref name="Crossroads of Cuisine: The Eurasian"/>~~ In Afghanistan, it is traditionally served when a newborn child is forty days old.

* ''Roth''(Kashmiri). The Afghan version of the universal West Asian and European sweet egg bread is called ''rot''. In Afghanistan, it is traditionally served when a newborn child is forty days old.

* ''Sheer Chai'' (Kashmiri). ''Qaimak'' or ''Sheer chai'' is often served at celebrations in Afghanistan to toast good health.

* ''Yakhein'' (Kashmiri). ''Patates Yahni'' or Greek potato stew is a traditional Greek recipe which falls under the category of ''ladera'', meaning dishes prepared only with olive oil with no addition of other fat. Turkish ''Yahni'' is a beef stew that is great in cold weather. A 19th century cookbook by Mehmet Kamil listed a total of 14 classic ''yakhnis''. ''Yakhni nokhod'' is a traditional Shirazi dish that uses meat, peas, potatoes, onions, salt and turmeric.

* ''Dam Olav'' (Kashmiri). Bengali ''alur dom'' is lightly spiced and slightly sweet potato curry made with onions, tomatoes and spices.

== Etiquette of Kashmiri dining ==

== Etiquette of Kashmiri dining ==

Kashmiris are gregarious and like to share.~~<ref name="Sal: A Feast of Kashmiri Cuisine"/>~~ Language and Food are the two vital parts of the region's identity. 'One who eats properly shall rule the country' it is said. An interesting wedding tradition from Kashmir involves newlyweds making ''roti'' together. While the bride flattens the dough and puts it on the griddle, the groom is responsible for flipping it and making sure it is cooked.Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes. Food connoisseurs can easily taste a single morsel and name the ''waza'' (chef) who cooked it. They can smell an aubergine from four other kinds, and tell you which one is from Kashmir. When filmmaker Vivek Agnihotri wrote a presumptuous tweet proposing the idea of vegetarian wazwan, social media erupted in spontaneous protest. Also, Gordon Ramsay, multi-Michelin-starred chef and television personality, found himself at the receiving end of criticism for his ''Rogan Josh'' by Kashmiris who commented that the cut of the meat and the gravy were wrong.

Kashmiris are gregarious and like to share. Language and Food are the two vital parts of the region's identity. 'One who eats properly shall rule the country' it is said. An interesting wedding tradition from Kashmir involves newlyweds making ''roti'' together. While the bride flattens the dough and puts it on the griddle, the groom is responsible for flipping it and making sure it is cooked.Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes. Food connoisseurs can easily taste a single morsel and name the ''waza'' (chef) who cooked it. They can smell an aubergine from four other kinds, and tell you which one is from Kashmir. When filmmaker Vivek Agnihotri wrote a presumptuous tweet proposing the idea of vegetarian wazwan, social media erupted in spontaneous protest. Also, Gordon Ramsay, multi-Michelin-starred chef and television personality, found himself at the receiving end of criticism for his ''Rogan Josh'' by Kashmiris who commented that the cut of the meat and the gravy were wrong.

[[File:Kashmiri family food.jpg|thumb|A Kashmiri family.]]

In Kashmir, it is said that food should both taste and look good.~~<ref name=Kilam1991/>~~ Its aroma must be appetising. Success of a meal lies in its appeal to the eyes, nose and then the tongue. Any event, from a minor one such as receiving a guest in one's home, to a major one such as a circumcision or a wedding, becomes a celebration of preparing, laying out, serving and consuming together the most delicious victuals. Delicacies are passed on to neighbours to be relished and there is no shame in asking for something when the nostrils are tickled and tempted by the mouth-watering smells from a neighbour's kitchen.

In Kashmir, it is said that food should both taste and look good. Its aroma must be appetising. Success of a meal lies in its appeal to the eyes, nose and then the tongue. Any event, from a minor one such as receiving a guest in one's home, to a major one such as a circumcision or a wedding, becomes a celebration of preparing, laying out, serving and consuming together the most delicious victuals. Delicacies are passed on to neighbours to be relished and there is no shame in asking for something when the nostrils are tickled and tempted by the mouth-watering smells from a neighbour's kitchen.

Giant ''dastarkhaans'' (white sheets) are spread on the floor on which the meal is served. However humble or lofty the fare on it, the ''dastarkhaan'' has always been the center of warm hospitality and conviviality. In big Kashmiri dinners, a hundred to five hundred people are usually invited. Since insurgency and the resultant violence and bloodshed, food has come to hold even greater meaning as each meal signifies a celebration of life itself. It is worth mentioning that ''wazas'' (the descendants of Samarkandi cooks), whose shops are located in particular areas of the city of Srinagar, form a significant political group in Kashmir.

All dishes are eaten by hand as Kashmiris believe in an intimate relationship with food. Even spiritual and religious old biddies feel no qualms in chomping on ear cartilage or marrow bones long after the meal is done, pulverising everything into a heap on the thali. No one bats an eyelid. Kashmiris consider it disrespectful if one refuses food varieties or an extra helping. They can go great lengths to persuade, swearing to die if you refuse an extra serving!

==Food-related proverbs==

Kashmiri language is rich in proverbs and idioms. Food-related idioms include:

* ''Adyav kheyiv chinih adyav kheyiv taki'' — half the people ate from large dishes, and half from small dishes. A badly arranged dinner.~~<ref name="Education Society's Press"/>~~

* ''Adyav kheyiv chinih adyav kheyiv taki'' — half the people ate from large dishes, and half from small dishes. A badly arranged dinner.

* ''Akh chhiwyov masah byak hakah rasah'' — one man is intoxicated with the juice of the grape, another with juice of vegetables. Pride dwells in everyone, whether he be rich or poor.

* ''Akh duda biyi maji kyut toak'' — an uninvited guest wants a (''toak'') plateful for his mother, in addition to himself. ''Toak'' was an earthen plate, in general use in Kashmir in the past. Beggars and some uninvited people pushed themselves in among the guests because of their poverty, or their desire for tasting the delicacies. It is applied where a person is not content with what is willingly offered to him, and demands more.

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* ''badhshah saab khar ne khewan zab, yeli poras teli kheyi zab'' — usually said for unthankful people who don't accept food.

==Sustainable consumption==

Kashmiri women would previously take extra mutton dishes by packing them in old newspapers or plastic bags that they would carry. With time, this tradition became popular, and men soon began travelling with the remaining mutton on their ''traem'' (''wazwan'' copper dish). In Kashmir, taking leftover food into carrying bags evolved into a movement, and people also granted it social legitimacy. Even the elites have joined the cause and begun providing specially made carry bags of leftover food. Even the leftover rice is not wasted in marriage functions and is served to animals (dogs, cattle etc.).

In Kashmir, a now-abandoned practice would use green Chinar leaves in packaging delicate things like mulberry, butter, mutton and cheese. This would help these easily contaminable items to stay nontoxic till consumption.

== See also ==

* [[Kanger]]

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==Further reading==

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[[Category:Kashmiri cuisine| ]]

[[Category:Indian cuisine by state or union territory]]

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[[Category:Culture of Jammu and Kashmir]]

</translate>

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+<languages />
+<translate>
+<!--T:1-->
 {{Short description|Culinary traditions of Kashmir, India}}
 [[File:Kashmiri cuisine waazwan.jpg|thumb|The thirty-six course meal, Kashmiri ''wazwan'']] [[File:Shufta Kashmiri cuisine.jpg|thumb|Shufta, a Kashmiri dessert, at a pandit restaurant in New Delhi.]] [[File:Harressa or Harees.jpeg|thumb|''Harissa'' or ''Harisse'', a meaty staple from Kashmir.]]
 [[File:Kashmiri Pandit Non-Vegetarian Cuisine.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri Pandit platter.]]
+<!--T:2-->
 {{Indian cuisine}}
 '''Kashmiri cuisine'''  refers to the traditional culinary practices of the [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] people from the [[Kashmir Valley]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India. The cuisine has strong influences from neighbouring regions in central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Rice has been a staple food in Kashmir since ancient times. The equivalent for the phrase "bread and butter" in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] is ''haakh-batte'' (greens and rice).
+<!--T:3-->
 Kashmiri cuisine is generally meat-heavy. The region has, per capita, the highest mutton consumers in the subcontinent.  In a majority of Kashmiri cooking, bread is not part of the meal. Bread is generally only eaten with tea in the morning or evening. A typical Kashmiri meal consists of a generous serving of rice (about 250&nbsp;g), mutton (100&nbsp;g) and vegetables (about 100&nbsp;g, mostly greens) cooked in oil, and [[Yogurt|yoghurt]] (50 to 250&nbsp;g).
-The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese ([[paneer]]), and legumes by Muslims are similar to those of Pandits,<ref name = 'RRoy' /> except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of [[asafoetida]]. Lamb or sheep is the choice of meat for Pandits, whereas Muslims prefer goats. [[Celosia|Cockscomb flower]], called "mawal" in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes. Kashmiri Pandit cuisine uses the mildly pungent [[Kashmiri red chili]] powder as a spice, as well as ''[[Alkanna tinctoria|ratanjot]]'' to impart colour to certain dishes like [[rogan josh]]. Kashmiri Muslim cuisine uses chilies in moderate quantity and avoid hot dishes at large meals.<ref name=Kilam1991/> In Kashmiri Muslim cuisine, vegetable curries are common with meat traditionally considered an expensive indulgence. Meat along with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared on special occasions like [[Eid al-Fitr]].
+<!--T:4-->
+The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese ([[paneer]]), and legumes by Muslims are similar to those of Pandits, except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of [[asafoetida]]. Lamb or sheep is the choice of meat for Pandits, whereas Muslims prefer goats. [[Celosia|Cockscomb flower]], called "mawal" in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes. Kashmiri Pandit cuisine uses the mildly pungent [[Kashmiri red chili]] powder as a spice, as well as ''[[Alkanna tinctoria|ratanjot]]'' to impart colour to certain dishes like [[rogan josh]]. Kashmiri Muslim cuisine uses chilies in moderate quantity and avoid hot dishes at large meals. In Kashmiri Muslim cuisine, vegetable curries are common with meat traditionally considered an expensive indulgence. Meat along with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared on special occasions like [[Eid al-Fitr]].
+<!--T:5-->
 == Global Popularity and Urban Expansion ==
 Kashmiri cuisine has witnessed a notable rise in global appreciation, with iconic dishes such as [[Rogan josh|Rogan Josh]], [[Goshtaba|Gushtaba]], Yakhni, and [[Kahwah|Kahwa]] being featured in gourmet menus worldwide. From food festivals in London and Dubai to fine-dining experiences in New York and Toronto, the rich, aromatic flavours of Kashmir are being embraced by international audiences.
+<!--T:6-->
 Within India, Kashmiri culinary offerings are increasingly making their mark in major metropolitan cities. Upscale Kashmiri restaurants have opened in [[Delhi]], [[Mumbai]], [[Bengaluru]], and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], catering to both the diaspora and curious food lovers seeking authentic regional cuisine. These establishments, often run by members of the Kashmiri community or curated by chefs specialising in [[Wazwan]], are helping preserve and promote the unique gastronomic heritage of the region.
+<!--T:7-->
 This growth is further supported by food influencers, [[YouTube]] chefs, and curated pop-up events that showcase the intricate preparation and cultural significance of Kashmiri dishes.
+<!--T:8-->
 == History of Kashmiri cuisine ==
 From the Mahabharata to the Iranian invasion of Kashmir (which was a part of Gandhara) by Darius in 516 BC, to the Mauryans who established Srinagara to the Kushan Empire to the invasion of Kashmir by Timur in 1398, the culture and cuisine of Kashmiris are linked to South Asia, Persian and Central Asian cuisines mixed with local innovations and availabilities of ingredients. The term ''kabab'' is Arabic in origin, ''korma'' has Turkish roots, and ''rogan josh'', ''yakhaen'', ''ab gosht'', ''riste'' and ''goshtabh'' stem from Persian sources.[[File:Horned figure on pottery. Pré-Indus civilization. Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Red-ware pottery with horned figure from Burzahom.]] [[File:Northern India, Kashmir - Shalabhanjika (Woman and Tree) - 1974.74 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|Kashmiri Woman and Tree (300s – 400s), her fertile properties cause the tree to fruit.]
+<!--T:9-->
 ===Early history===
 There is a legend that aeons ago Kashmir valley was a vast mountain lake. The soil contains remains of fresh-water fish and fossil-oysters and the black shells of water chestnut may be found in layers embedded in the earth at a height of 457 metres above the level of the valley.
+<!--T:10-->
 === Paleolithic age ===
 The process of Kashmir's amalgamation with outer world commenced with the importation of primitive forms of snake and fire worship from Iran. Since [[Paleolithic]] times, serpents were worshipped and buried with a supply of insects in their graves as a provision for their future life. In addition, they splashed grains at shrines and graves to express regard unto snakes and other animals. Bommai Sopore archaeological site, discovered by Dr Mamtaz Yatoo in 2005, has a prehistoric rock engraving, the first of its kind found in Kashmir. This [[Upper Paleolithic]] engraving depicts chase and game engagements of the prehistoric population. Recent investigations by archaeologists&nbsp; at Overa valley of&nbsp;Pahalgam have revealed stone tools of Paleolithic ages,&nbsp;including single-edged stone blades used for preying of animals.
+<!--T:11-->
 === Neolithic culture ===
-Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation.<ref name="UNESCO-2022" /> Clear evidence for agriculture in the form of large domestic storages of grain and rachises of wheat and barley, as well as millets, were found after 2500 BC in Qasim Bagh in Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley contains multiple sites of the so-called Northern Neolithic, possibly dating as early as 3000 BC when climate became warmer. Excavations from Pethpuran Teng suggest a wider network of contact of this early population, and a significantly deeper time transition of broom-corn millets across the Inner Asian mountains. The date range returned from the lentil samples at Pethpuran Tang represent one of the earliest dated pulse crops from the region (c. 2700 BC). While the valley is altitudinally comparable to other inter-montane agro-pastoralist sites in Central Asia, Kashmir's slightly lower latitude presented the valley as a geographic threshold where crops could be grown without the necessary introgression of traits allowing their cultivation in higher and more northerly regions.
+Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation. Clear evidence for agriculture in the form of large domestic storages of grain and rachises of wheat and barley, as well as millets, were found after 2500 BC in Qasim Bagh in Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley contains multiple sites of the so-called Northern Neolithic, possibly dating as early as 3000 BC when climate became warmer. Excavations from Pethpuran Teng suggest a wider network of contact of this early population, and a significantly deeper time transition of broom-corn millets across the Inner Asian mountains. The date range returned from the lentil samples at Pethpuran Tang represent one of the earliest dated pulse crops from the region (c. 2700 BC). While the valley is altitudinally comparable to other inter-montane agro-pastoralist sites in Central Asia, Kashmir's slightly lower latitude presented the valley as a geographic threshold where crops could be grown without the necessary introgression of traits allowing their cultivation in higher and more northerly regions.
-The range of tools recovered at the [[Neolithic]] site of [[Burzahom]], in the district of [[Srinagar]] shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits.<ref name="UNESCO-2022" /> The Period II ([[Late Neolithic|Ceramic Neolithic]]) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram. Mortar and pestle characterised by a rectangular cross-section are made of the same volcanic rock as used by the current Kashmiris. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia.<ref name="UNESCO-2022" /> Harvesters (both in stone and bone) with two holes for handling it indicate contacts with China.
+<!--T:12-->
+The range of tools recovered at the [[Neolithic]] site of [[Burzahom]], in the district of [[Srinagar]] shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits. The Period II ([[Late Neolithic|Ceramic Neolithic]]) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram. Mortar and pestle characterised by a rectangular cross-section are made of the same volcanic rock as used by the current Kashmiris. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia. Harvesters (both in stone and bone) with two holes for handling it indicate contacts with China.
-At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41&nbsp;km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear.<ref name="Ahmad-2021a" /> Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits. Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (''sus scrofa'') and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (''lepus''), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.
+<!--T:13-->
+At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41&nbsp;km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear. Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits. Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (''sus scrofa'') and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (''lepus''), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.
+<!--T:14-->
 On the basis of the presence of the Emmer wheat (''Triticumdicoccum'') crop at Kanispur, seven kilometres east of Baramulla, contacts of Harappans with the Neolithic Kashmir has been suggested. With the Aryan migration to Kashmir around the 8th century BC, the fire worship cult got embedded into the innate religio-cultural texture of Kashmir through practices such as a phallic emblem of cooked rice. The local ceremony of ''vayuk'' is again near to the Iranian style of ''Farvadin''. On a special day of the month, Kashmiri Muslims remember their dead, visit their graves and distribute loaves of rice.
+<!--T:15-->
 ===Indo-Greek and Kushana period===
 [[File:Badamwari Garden 02.jpg|thumb|Badamwari Garden in Kashmir is known for its almond blossoms. The almond (''prunus amygdalus'') tree has a very old history in the Kashmir valley.]]
 Earthen ''thalis'' (pans) have been found at Semthan, north of Bijbehara from the Indo-Greek period (200 BC – 1st century AD).''Handis'' (metal pots), flat plates, pedestalled cups and edged bowls have been reported in large numbers from the excavated sites of Harwan, Kanispur and Semthan. At Kanispur, cooking pots have been found. Kushan coins have been recovered in large numbers from the Kashmir valley with those of [[Kanishka]] continuing to emulate Vima's motif of king sacrificing at an altar.
+<!--T:16-->
 The Kushan period is characterised by a double-cropping pattern, suggesting a change in agricultural practices associated with a population recovery following a post-Neolithic decline. Finds of ''Vitis vinifera'' (Common Grape Vine), ''Emblica officinalis'' (Indian Gooseberry), ''Ziziphus nummularia'' (Wild Jujube)'', Juglans regia'' (English Walnut) and ''Prunus amygdalus'' (Almond) suggest that horticulture and foraging played an important role in the diet of the occupants. The Kushan remains from Kanispur are dominated by barley, in contrast to Semthan where wheat is more common.
+<!--T:17-->
 The Kushana history tells us that right from the days of the Kushana rulers (1st century AD – 450 AD) there were contacts between Romans and Kashmir. Kashmir was connected to the southern silk route via Gilgit and Yasin valley at Tashkurghan. The main items of export to Rome were saffron and [[dolomiaea costus]] (''kutha''). Dolomiaea costus was used in Rome for various purposes, among which for scenting of food and seasoning of wine.
+<!--T:18-->
 ===Hindu dynasties===
 There were military contacts between the Karkota kingdom in Kashmir and the Tang (618 AD – 907 AD) court in China. When the Chinese Tang Dynasty successfully defeated the Tibetan forces and entered little Palur in October 722 AD, Kashmir was credited for providing agricultural supplies essential to sustaining the Chinese troops stationed in Gilgit valley.
+<!--T:19-->
 ===Kashmir Sultanate (1346 – 1580s)===
 [[File:Sheikh Noor-ud-din Wali.jpg|thumb|Shrine of Kashmiri Sufi saint Nund Reshi.]]
+<!--T:20-->
 Since Islam did not directly arrive from Arabia to Kashmir, it naturally carried with it mixed Iranian and Central Asian influences. Similarly, the Kashmiri Hindus were doing things which would have frightened orthodox Hindus from India. They drank water brought by a Muslim, ate food that was cooked in a Muslim boat and even Muslim foster-mothers were allowed to feed their children. Hence, the ''rishi'' cult identified with Hinduism in subscribing to vegetarianism, non-injury to animals and abstaining from the use of garlic and onion in food. [[Nund Rishi]], according to a legend, subsisted on a diet of dried dandelion leaves and [[Lal Ded]] preached and practised strict vegetarianism.
+<!--T:21-->
 Moreover, when [[Yousuf Shah Chak|Yusuf Shah Chak]], the last sovereign king of Kashmir signed a treaty with emperor Akbar recognising his symbolic sovereignty in 1586 one of the terms was that the mint, the saffron and game would remain under imperial control.
-===Mughals (1580s – 1750s)===
+===Mughals (1580s – 1750s)=== <!--T:22-->
+<!--T:23-->
 In Srinagar, poor people's meals were made of ghee, milk, beef, onions, wine, pickles, and vinegar.  Rice, fish, and numerous vegetables were staple foods during the Mughal era. Butter and fats were not widely used in cooking since they were believed to be dangerous owing to the cold environment. The river water was not drunk by the people of South Kashmir. They drank Dal Lake water, which was warm, pleasant, and easily digestible.
+<!--T:24-->
 In 1635–36, during Shahjahan's reign, a violent conflict flared up between the Shias and Sunnis when a group of both the sections were eating mulberries at Maisuma and some were accused of using indecent words against Muhammad. In 1641, unprecedented floods followed by a famine rendered the villages desolate. Shahjahan sent 30,000 rupees to the ''subedar'' Tarbiyat Khan to be distributed among the destitute in Srinagar and also ordered that five centres should be opened in the valley to provide free food to the needy.
+<!--T:25-->
 === Sikh Rule (1819–1846) ===
 Cow slaughter was declared a crime punishable by death and many people accused of killing cows were publicly hanged. Owing to the shortsighted policy of the rulers Kashmír witnessed an acute agrarian crisis. Sikh rulers imposed one half of the paddy production as a share of the government. The population of Kashmir decreased from 800,000 in 1822–1823 to 120,000 in 1835.
+<!--T:26-->
 === Dogra Rule (1846–1947) ===
 Coarse rice and ''haakh'' constituted the main food. Where paddy cultivation was restricted due to uneven terrain and lack of irrigation facilities, wheat and maize constituted the main items of food. In certain parts of Kashmir they lived on aquatic products such as ''singhara'' (water nuts).
+<!--T:27-->
 Kashmiri apples were carried by coolies on their backs over 12 days to Rawalpindi in British India.
-The famine of 1878–79 was deadly.<ref name="Naik-2012" /> Also, catching and eating of fish by men driven by hunger was made unlawful by an edict during the reign of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. Often anyone who killed a cow was boiled in oil and the hung from a hook which was fixed on to a pole in a public place. People did not possess any right to waste land and the only right which the villager had was that he could plant trees on such lands, and was the owner of the trees and not of land. Milk and butter was often taken away from ''gujjars'' (nomadic herdsmen) without payment by the officials''.'' [[File:Canal-kashmir 0.jpg|thumb|<nowiki>''</nowiki>Six Artistic views of Kashmir<nowiki>''</nowiki> by unidentified British painter. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin built canals to promote agriculture.]]
+<!--T:28-->
+The famine of 1878–79 was deadly. Also, catching and eating of fish by men driven by hunger was made unlawful by an edict during the reign of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. Often anyone who killed a cow was boiled in oil and the hung from a hook which was fixed on to a pole in a public place. People did not possess any right to waste land and the only right which the villager had was that he could plant trees on such lands, and was the owner of the trees and not of land. Milk and butter was often taken away from ''gujjars'' (nomadic herdsmen) without payment by the officials''.'' [[File:Canal-kashmir 0.jpg|thumb|<nowiki>''</nowiki>Six Artistic views of Kashmir<nowiki>''</nowiki> by unidentified British painter. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin built canals to promote agriculture.]]
-===Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri texts===
+===Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri texts=== <!--T:29-->
+<!--T:30-->
 [[File:Rice crop harvesting in South Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Rice fields in South Kashmir.]] [[File:Jahangircrop.jpeg|thumb|Kashmir was the most favourite part of the Empire of Mughal Emperor Jehangir.]] [[File:Fish spearing on the lake.jpg|thumb|Fish spearing on the Dal Lake (pre-1920).]]
 Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri scriptures/chronicles/travellers' accounts include:
+<!--T:31-->
 * ''Rice'', which could be imported from other countries in times of famine.Patañjali's Mahabhashya reveals that rice was already being cultivated in the valley c.150 BC. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin diverted the waters of the Dal Lake into the Mar canal which he extended up to Shadipur where it emptied itself at the confluence of Jhelum and Indus. Owing to these irrigation works, and reclamation of large areas for cultivation, Kashmir became self-sufficient in rice production. The natives considered the hot water at Dewsur sacred, and said that when one wished to know if any undertaking will prosper, they must take an earthen vessel, fill it with rice, and having secured the mouth, so that water may be excluded, throw it into the holy font. If on coming up the rice was boiled, it was deemed a fortunate omen, but unpropitious if otherwise.
 * ''Pilau'', yellow pilau, black pilau, shola pilau etc.
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 * ''Holy Basil''.
 * ''Salt'', a precious article and according to Ksemendra, consumed by the rich alone. Two varieties were found in the bazaars of Kashmir: rock salt from the Punjab, and powder salt, called ''bota nun'' from Ladakh.
-* [[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 05.jpg|thumb|Kong (saffron from Kashmir), GI tag.]]''Saffron'', historians suggest Persian saffron corms were transplanted to Kashmiri soil after Persia conquered Kashmir. The first harvest occurred sometime prior to 500 BC. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller in his ''Travels in India'' (631 AD) says that saffron flowers were long used to adorn the neck of oxen at the autumn festival in the country of Kashmir. Reference has been made of Kashmiri saffron in the [[Ratnavali]] of Harsha. Buddhist tradition claims Mādhyandina, a disciple or companion of the Buddha's disciple Ānanda, introduced the saffron crocus in Kashmir. Kashmiri poet [[Bilhana]] in his Vikramanka Charitam says that the cultivation of saffron flowers in Kashmir originated from Takshaka Naga, a holy spring. A popular myth talks about how when a naga chieftain (a water god) fell sick with an eye complaint, he was cured by the ''vaidya'' of Padmapur (Pampore). In gratitude, the naga gave him a bulb of saffron and thus the locals began the cultivation.<ref name="Kesar: The cultural geography of Ka"/> Ksemendra mentioned that traders used to earn a lot through trade in saffron, in his 11th century satire ''Samayamatrka''. In the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tradition, a ceremony was performed with saffron for warriors. The Persian historian Firishta (1612) mentions that the saffron of Kashmir was particularly good. At the time of Jehangir (1605–27), the annual crop was 18.5 tonnes, more than anywhere in the world.
+* [[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 05.jpg|thumb|Kong (saffron from Kashmir), GI tag.]]''Saffron'', historians suggest Persian saffron corms were transplanted to Kashmiri soil after Persia conquered Kashmir. The first harvest occurred sometime prior to 500 BC. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller in his ''Travels in India'' (631 AD) says that saffron flowers were long used to adorn the neck of oxen at the autumn festival in the country of Kashmir. Reference has been made of Kashmiri saffron in the [[Ratnavali]] of Harsha. Buddhist tradition claims Mādhyandina, a disciple or companion of the Buddha's disciple Ānanda, introduced the saffron crocus in Kashmir. Kashmiri poet [[Bilhana]] in his Vikramanka Charitam says that the cultivation of saffron flowers in Kashmir originated from Takshaka Naga, a holy spring. A popular myth talks about how when a naga chieftain (a water god) fell sick with an eye complaint, he was cured by the ''vaidya'' of Padmapur (Pampore). In gratitude, the naga gave him a bulb of saffron and thus the locals began the cultivation. Ksemendra mentioned that traders used to earn a lot through trade in saffron, in his 11th century satire ''Samayamatrka''. In the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tradition, a ceremony was performed with saffron for warriors. The Persian historian Firishta (1612) mentions that the saffron of Kashmir was particularly good. At the time of Jehangir (1605–27), the annual crop was 18.5 tonnes, more than anywhere in the world.
 * ''Clarified Butter'', lamps were prepared with ''ghee''. It was sold by itinerant sellers who went from door to door.[[File:Doodhpathri - Mustard fields on the way southwest Jammu Kashmir India.jpg|thumb|Mustard fields at Doodhpathri. Mustard oil has been a very important part of Kashmiri cooking since it replaced walnut oil.]]
-* ''Oil''.<ref name="Ghai-2021"/> Wooden oil presses constructed more than 200 years ago have been operating in Kashmir. Till the mid-1940s there were sixteen oil mills operating in Srinagar.  Large quantities of dried apricots called ''Bote Chire'' were imported to Kashmir from Ladakh in the bygone days, and oil was pressed from their kernels at Kashmiri oil presses. The rapeseed oil was considered best for eating while walnut and almond oil were also used. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the cultivation of mustard plants grew considerably in Kashmir, and the use of walnut oil fell considerably.
+* ''Oil''. Wooden oil presses constructed more than 200 years ago have been operating in Kashmir. Till the mid-1940s there were sixteen oil mills operating in Srinagar.  Large quantities of dried apricots called ''Bote Chire'' were imported to Kashmir from Ladakh in the bygone days, and oil was pressed from their kernels at Kashmiri oil presses. The rapeseed oil was considered best for eating while walnut and almond oil were also used. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the cultivation of mustard plants grew considerably in Kashmir, and the use of walnut oil fell considerably.
 * ''Gold Dust''.
 * ''Curd''.
@@ Line 149: / Line 180: @@
 *  ''Mead''.
 *  ''Rum'', from treacle.
-* ''Wine'', called ''mas'' in Kashmiri language. Kashmir was the only part of India where wine was made from the juice of the grape, a fact to be attributed rather to its acescent quality, than to any scarcity of fruit. A wine culture inflected by Hellenism thrived in Kashmir in the early centuries AD. At the beaded ring of a statue of goddess Lakshmi in a distinctively Gandharan style discovered by Frenchman Albert Foucher near the village of Brar in Bandipora in 1896, one can see clusters and foliage of vines.In the ''Mulasarvastivada vinaya'', a Buddhist text from the first half of the 2nd century AD,  some monks travel in the Northwest and a ''yakṣa'' presents them with some grapes, which are said to be from Kashmir and apparently a great novelty. The Buddha explains that they can be eaten after purifying them with a burning ember, and that people can also make juice/syrup from them. For Abhinavagupta, alcohol which came from grape was splendour to a supreme degree. He praised the wine of his native Kashmir as ''mahabhairava'' (the mercurial essence). Jayaratha cautions against mixing it with any other ingredient, for the reason that its effectiveness would be quite limited. [[Lalitaditya Muktapida|Lalitaditya]]  was so intoxicated with wine he told his ministers that if they wished to increase the beauty of his city, they should burn ''Pravarapura'', the city built by king Sri Pravarasena of the [[Alchon Huns]] and his orders could not be disobeyed.There are many references which show that making and drinking wine was not prohibited during the early Sultanate period even though it was strongly disapproved of by the orthodox section of the society. It was a common sight to see laymen and Brahman priests alike in a state of drunkenness during Hindu festivals. Despite the Islamic ban on alcohol, the Muslims, who participated in these festivals, also freely partook of wine. Zainul Abidin took it in moderation, but Haider Shah was a confirmed drunkard.<ref name="Qadri-2024" /> [[Sikandar Butshikan]], or the ''destroyer of idols'' (c.1416) prohibited vending wine in Kashmir. The indigenous vines were generally planted at the foot of poplar and ran up to the height of fifty or sixty feet, bearing an abundance of fruit. After harvesting grapes in October, they were kept in shallow earthen vessels till spring, then they were applied to the fabrication of wine, vinegar and brandy. In 1815, the early wine writer André Jullien compared Kashmiri wine to madeira. Maharaja Ranbir Singh introduced vines from Bordeaux in France and Marion Doughty, a woman who visited Kashmir in 1900 wrote that the Medoc and B''arsac'' were both strengthening and pleasant to taste''.'' ''Anguri'' and ''qandi'' were the cherished drinks of singers.
+* ''Wine'', called ''mas'' in Kashmiri language. Kashmir was the only part of India where wine was made from the juice of the grape, a fact to be attributed rather to its acescent quality, than to any scarcity of fruit. A wine culture inflected by Hellenism thrived in Kashmir in the early centuries AD. At the beaded ring of a statue of goddess Lakshmi in a distinctively Gandharan style discovered by Frenchman Albert Foucher near the village of Brar in Bandipora in 1896, one can see clusters and foliage of vines.In the ''Mulasarvastivada vinaya'', a Buddhist text from the first half of the 2nd century AD,  some monks travel in the Northwest and a ''yakṣa'' presents them with some grapes, which are said to be from Kashmir and apparently a great novelty. The Buddha explains that they can be eaten after purifying them with a burning ember, and that people can also make juice/syrup from them. For Abhinavagupta, alcohol which came from grape was splendour to a supreme degree. He praised the wine of his native Kashmir as ''mahabhairava'' (the mercurial essence). Jayaratha cautions against mixing it with any other ingredient, for the reason that its effectiveness would be quite limited. [[Lalitaditya Muktapida|Lalitaditya]]  was so intoxicated with wine he told his ministers that if they wished to increase the beauty of his city, they should burn ''Pravarapura'', the city built by king Sri Pravarasena of the [[Alchon Huns]] and his orders could not be disobeyed.There are many references which show that making and drinking wine was not prohibited during the early Sultanate period even though it was strongly disapproved of by the orthodox section of the society. It was a common sight to see laymen and Brahman priests alike in a state of drunkenness during Hindu festivals. Despite the Islamic ban on alcohol, the Muslims, who participated in these festivals, also freely partook of wine. Zainul Abidin took it in moderation, but Haider Shah was a confirmed drunkard. [[Sikandar Butshikan]], or the ''destroyer of idols'' (c.1416) prohibited vending wine in Kashmir. The indigenous vines were generally planted at the foot of poplar and ran up to the height of fifty or sixty feet, bearing an abundance of fruit. After harvesting grapes in October, they were kept in shallow earthen vessels till spring, then they were applied to the fabrication of wine, vinegar and brandy. In 1815, the early wine writer André Jullien compared Kashmiri wine to madeira. Maharaja Ranbir Singh introduced vines from Bordeaux in France and Marion Doughty, a woman who visited Kashmir in 1900 wrote that the Medoc and B''arsac'' were both strengthening and pleasant to taste''.'' ''Anguri'' and ''qandi'' were the cherished drinks of singers.
 * ''Maireya Wine'', a spicy wine perfumed by camphor, and made out of fruits and flowers with a natural sugar base.
 * ''Asava Wine'', decocted extracts or cold infusion extracts of different herbs fermented with flowers of ''dhataki'' (''woodfordia fruticosa'').
@@ Line 158: / Line 189: @@
 * ''Vinegar'', Kashmiris made various pickles with it, the best of which was garlic, according to Jehangir.
 * ''Flour cakes'', fine flour could become expensive.
-* ''Spirit from Grapes'',<ref name="Forster-1798"/> liquor (''mrdvika'') was drunk with incantation and blessing.
+* ''Spirit from Grapes'', liquor (''mrdvika'') was drunk with incantation and blessing.
 *  ''Spirit from Datura (Thorn-Apple).''
 * ''Sesame'' Oil was extracted from it
@@ Line 169: / Line 200: @@
 * ''Green vegetables''
-== Ingredients and seasoning ==
+== Ingredients and seasoning == <!--T:32-->
+<!--T:33-->
 ===Meat===
 [[File:Sheep , Gangabal Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Local sheep in Gangabal, Kashmir.]]Apart from chicken, fish and game, Kashmiris use only mutton (meat of mature sheep) or goat's meat. More than 75% of sheep population are cross breeds and are generally called Kashmir Merino that provides the dual purpose of meat and wool. The ''Bakkarwal'' (nomadic herders) goats belong to the rare Kaghani breed, prized as one of the world's best in terms of meat.
+<!--T:34-->
 Beef is consumed in towns and villages of Kashmir more so for its affordability. In some villages, beef-eaters are huddled separately from those supposed to be served mutton during ''wazwan'' feasts. There is a class divide between people who eat ''kat maaz'' ("small meat", mutton) considered elite and more sophisticated, and those who eat ''bad maaz'' ("big meat", beef), considered lower-class. The biggest rabbit breeding farm in North India sprawls on six hectares of land in Wussan village of Baramulla district of Kashmir. The consumption of rabbit meat as a substitute for sheep and goat meat among the general masses is becoming popular. People with cardiac problems eat rabbits as the meat is considered lean and white with high nutritious value.
-The local geese of Kashmir (''Kashmir Aenz'') is the first and only recognised domestic geese breed in India. Geese rearing in the Valley dates back to ancient time as has been mentioned by Sir Walter R. Lawrence in his book 'The Valley of Kashmir'. In Srinagar, geese are mainly sold in Batmaloo and Lal Chowk, by vendors, who purchase geese from rearers in villages and sell them live or slaughtered in the city.<ref name="Hamadani-2018" /> In affluent families, geese pickles would also be made and kept aside for winter use.
+<!--T:35-->
+The local geese of Kashmir (''Kashmir Aenz'') is the first and only recognised domestic geese breed in India. Geese rearing in the Valley dates back to ancient time as has been mentioned by Sir Walter R. Lawrence in his book 'The Valley of Kashmir'. In Srinagar, geese are mainly sold in Batmaloo and Lal Chowk, by vendors, who purchase geese from rearers in villages and sell them live or slaughtered in the city. In affluent families, geese pickles would also be made and kept aside for winter use.
+<!--T:36-->
 ===Fish===
 [[File:Fish farm kokernag.jpg|thumb|Rainbow and brown trout farm at Kokernag]]
 The Duke of Bedford helped to send 10,000 trout eggs from the UK in 1899 but they perished on the way. A second consignment arrived from Scotland the next year. The rainbow and brown trout adapted well to the Kashmir valley, while the indigenous snow trout continues to flourish. Locally known as ''alegaad'', it can be found in both standing and flowing water bodies throughout the valley. There were 137 private fish farms in just Anantnag district, which was declared as the 'Trout District of India'.
+<!--T:37-->
 ===Eggs===
 Poultry farms are set on European standards, as Kashmir has similar geo-climatic conditions. Using permaculture and [[no-dig gardening]] technique, free-range eggs are being sold every day. People collect chick varieties like Kalinga brown, Vanraja, Kashmir Commercial Layer, etc. to dish out a regular supply of organic brown eggs. The Kashmir Duck (''batook'') is reared for its eggs in all districts of the valley with highest population in Bandipora district, followed by Kupwara, Barmulla, Srinagar and others.
+<!--T:38-->
 Kalij pheasant (''wan kokur'') lays between 6 and 10 eggs per clutch, and are perfect served soft-boiled in their olive-green shells with a mere sprinkle of celery salt and buttered soldiers.
+<!--T:39-->
 ===Cereals===
-People in Kashmir eat different varieties of rice including the nutty and fragrant ''Mushk Budji'', grown in the higher reaches of the Kashmir valley. In February 2022, ''Mushk Budji'' rice got the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. This cooked rice is unique and possesses a harmonious blend of taste, aroma and rich organoleptic properties.<ref name="Majid-2024" />  Kashmiri red rice, locally called ''Zaag Batt'', is grown in a small village called Tangdhar on the border with Pakistan. The small unpolished grains are sought for their superior texture and taste. In 2009, farmers in the region harvested the legendary Basmati rice for the first time.[[File:Kohlraabi and Kashmiri saag.jpg|thumb|Monje Haakh ([[kohlrabi]]).]] [[File:Kashmiri Garlic.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri garlic]]
+People in Kashmir eat different varieties of rice including the nutty and fragrant ''Mushk Budji'', grown in the higher reaches of the Kashmir valley. In February 2022, ''Mushk Budji'' rice got the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. This cooked rice is unique and possesses a harmonious blend of taste, aroma and rich organoleptic properties.  Kashmiri red rice, locally called ''Zaag Batt'', is grown in a small village called Tangdhar on the border with Pakistan. The small unpolished grains are sought for their superior texture and taste. In 2009, farmers in the region harvested the legendary Basmati rice for the first time.[[File:Kohlraabi and Kashmiri saag.jpg|thumb|Monje Haakh ([[kohlrabi]]).]] [[File:Kashmiri Garlic.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri garlic]]
 [[File:Collard Plants.jpg|thumb|''Koshur haakh'', local collard greens.]]
+<!--T:40-->
 ===Vegetables===
 [[File:Vegetable seller on Dal Lake..JPG|thumb|Floating vegetable market on Dal Lake]]
-The most important and frequently used Kashmiri vegetables are: ''haakh'' (collard greens or kale), ''monj Haak'' ( [[kohlrabi]]), ''tsochael''(mallow), ''bamchoont'' (quince), ''kral mound'' (shepherds purse), ''saze posh'' (holly hock), ''nadur'' (lotus stem), ''praan'' (shallots), ''aubuj'' (sorrel), ''mawal'' (cockscomb), ''wushkofur'' (camphor), ''tila gogul'' (mustard) and ''gor'' (water-chestnut). The floating vegetable garden on the Dal Lake is the second largest wholesale market in the world. Men, young and old, on their wooden boats, argue about the price of plump pumpkins and gourds as they share cigarettes or hookahs. The water of Kashmir is sweeter, and that affects the taste and flavour of vegetables. The items for sale include tomatoes, carrots, cucumbers, turnips, water chestnuts, leafy vegetables, and the famous ''nadur''. A porous and fibrous lake vegetable, ''nadur'' has grown to become an irreplaceable ingredient in a traditional Kashmiri kitchen. Local accounts date its discovery to the 15th-century sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, who was introduced to the chewy delicacy while on a shikara ride on the Gil Sar lake located in the exteriors of Srinagar.<ref name=Barua/> Also, according to a popular legend, the yarn threads that Lalla Ded (1320–1392), the Kashmiri mystic saint wove were thrown into the Dal Lake when her tyrant mother-in-law ridiculed and taunted her for yarning it too thin. These got changed into the fibres of ''nadur'' for eternity.
+The most important and frequently used Kashmiri vegetables are: ''haakh'' (collard greens or kale), ''monj Haak'' ( [[kohlrabi]]), ''tsochael''(mallow), ''bamchoont'' (quince), ''kral mound'' (shepherds purse), ''saze posh'' (holly hock), ''nadur'' (lotus stem), ''praan'' (shallots), ''aubuj'' (sorrel), ''mawal'' (cockscomb), ''wushkofur'' (camphor), ''tila gogul'' (mustard) and ''gor'' (water-chestnut). The floating vegetable garden on the Dal Lake is the second largest wholesale market in the world. Men, young and old, on their wooden boats, argue about the price of plump pumpkins and gourds as they share cigarettes or hookahs. The water of Kashmir is sweeter, and that affects the taste and flavour of vegetables. The items for sale include tomatoes, carrots, cucumbers, turnips, water chestnuts, leafy vegetables, and the famous ''nadur''. A porous and fibrous lake vegetable, ''nadur'' has grown to become an irreplaceable ingredient in a traditional Kashmiri kitchen. Local accounts date its discovery to the 15th-century sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, who was introduced to the chewy delicacy while on a shikara ride on the Gil Sar lake located in the exteriors of Srinagar. Also, according to a popular legend, the yarn threads that Lalla Ded (1320–1392), the Kashmiri mystic saint wove were thrown into the Dal Lake when her tyrant mother-in-law ridiculed and taunted her for yarning it too thin. These got changed into the fibres of ''nadur'' for eternity.
-Sun-dried vegetables, locally known as ''hokh syun'', are consumed as fresh produce dwindles. During summer, vegetables are peeled, chopped, salted and sun-dried to preserve them for winter.<ref name="moneycontrol.com"/> The various varieties of ''hokh syun'' include dried tomatoes (''ruwangun haech''), dried fenugreek leaves (''meeth''), dried lotus stem (''nadir haech''), dried Iberian knapweed (''kretch''), dried shallot leaves (''praan''), dried mint (''pudna''), dried bottle gourd (''al haech''), dried turnip slices (''gogji haech''), dried quince (''bamchount haech''), dried collard greens (''hoech haak'') and dried spinach (''hoech palak''). In the Charar Sharief area of central Kashmir, dried pears, locally known as ''tang haech'' are considered a delicacy.
+<!--T:41-->
+Sun-dried vegetables, locally known as ''hokh syun'', are consumed as fresh produce dwindles. During summer, vegetables are peeled, chopped, salted and sun-dried to preserve them for winter. The various varieties of ''hokh syun'' include dried tomatoes (''ruwangun haech''), dried fenugreek leaves (''meeth''), dried lotus stem (''nadir haech''), dried Iberian knapweed (''kretch''), dried shallot leaves (''praan''), dried mint (''pudna''), dried bottle gourd (''al haech''), dried turnip slices (''gogji haech''), dried quince (''bamchount haech''), dried collard greens (''hoech haak'') and dried spinach (''hoech palak''). In the Charar Sharief area of central Kashmir, dried pears, locally known as ''tang haech'' are considered a delicacy.
+<!--T:42-->
 Shallots, known as ''praan'', stand out, lending its unique flavour to a multitude of Kashmiri dishes, from soups and stews, to curries and kebabs. Many of Mughal Emperor Akbar's feasts in the 16th century featured shallots. Buthoo village has earned renown for producing prized organic shallots. [[Snow Mountain garlic]], also known as Kashmiri garlic, is a rare single-clove variety of ''Allium sativum''. The clove beneath is bright white to creamy-white color and offers a strong, pungent garlic flavour without the acidity present in other varieties.
+<!--T:43-->
 Kashmir valley is the only place in India where asparagus grows. Until the 1960s, it was grown widely in Kashmir at Pulwama, Budgam, Rajbagh, Tangmarg and Gulmarg. As of now the area of asparagus cultivation is restricted to Tangmarg and Gulmarg.
+<!--T:44-->
 ===Sugar and sweeteners===
 Sugarcane does not grow in Kashmir. Sugar was exclusively imported from erstwhile united Punjab up to 1947 but was among the costliest imports to Kashmir. The then Dogra government suggested cultivating sugar maple and beetroot sugar but it could not materialise. In the past, when sugar was not imported, people used honey. Delicate nectar of the acacia flowers makes for honey in Tral, Verinag and other locations. ''Sidr'' honey considered one of the most distinguished types of honey in the world, is obtained from ''Sidr'' (jujube) trees in the Kashmir Valley.
 [[File:Kashmiri apples.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri apples.]]
+<!--T:45-->
 ===Fruits===
-Kashmiri apple is famous for its juiciness and distinct flavour as well. In 2019 alone, Kashmir produced over 1.9 million metric tonnes of apples, the highest among Indian states. Further, Kashmir accounts for 90% of India's walnut production. Kashmiri walnuts are a great source of nutrients and widely in demand across the globe.<ref name=et/> Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. Many years ago, walnut oil used to be a medium of cooking and imparted a sweeter and nuttier flavour to dishes.
+Kashmiri apple is famous for its juiciness and distinct flavour as well. In 2019 alone, Kashmir produced over 1.9 million metric tonnes of apples, the highest among Indian states. Further, Kashmir accounts for 90% of India's walnut production. Kashmiri walnuts are a great source of nutrients and widely in demand across the globe. Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. Many years ago, walnut oil used to be a medium of cooking and imparted a sweeter and nuttier flavour to dishes.
 [[File:Packing Strawberries (14574895731).jpg|thumb|The local climate with bright sunshine and moderate rainfall, is ideally suited for strawberry cultivation.]]
 Muhammad Quli Afshar brought cherries from Kabul and planted them during Akbar's time. Mishri variety of cherry is famous in Kashmir and sweeter than other varieties. They are loaded with minerals, vitamins and plant compounds. The exotic berries from Kashmir are sweet and sour mulberry (''tuell'' and ''shah-tuell''), raspberry (''chhanchh''), barberry (''kaawducchh'') and red berry (''haapat maewaa''). Gassu area on the Srinagar outskirts is known for strawberry (''istaber'') harvesting.
+<!--T:46-->
 Orange cultivation for commercial purposes was introduced a few decades before in the Urossa village in Uri. The climate and soil is relatively warmer than the rest of Kashmir and conducive for the crop. In this mountainous region, the micro-climate is good for Mediterranean crops like lemons and olives. The lemons are better and juicier than Punjab lemons. A sub-species of wild olives that doesn't bear much fruit but grows even in hardy, rough conditions is used for grafting with fruit varieties, producing about 1,000 litres of extra virgin olive oil each year.
+<!--T:47-->
 According to official estimates, Kashmiri grapes are cultivated on almost 500 to 600 hectares of land with production up to 1100 to 1500 MT per year. [[File:Famous Kalaadi of Ramnagar.jpg|thumb|Dried cheese (''maish krej'') from Jammu & Kashmir.]]
+<!--T:48-->
 ===Dairy products===
 Holstein Friesian (HF) and Jersey cows were introduced in Kashmir several decades ago, producing 4 million litres of milk per day. Organic Kashmiri butter wrapped in Chinar leaves was common in the yesteryears, but is now sold only by a few.
 [[File:Saffron From Pampore.jpg|thumb|Saffron fields in Pampore.]]
+<!--T:49-->
 ===Spices===
 [[File:Kashmiri Red Chilli.JPG|thumb|Kashmiri Chilli Pepper.]]
 [[File:Caraway.JPG|thumb|Kashmiri black cumin.]]
+<!--T:50-->
 Kashmiri saffron is known for its aroma, colour, and medicinal value. The saffron of Pampore town is considered to be of superior quality with 8.72% crocin content as compared to the Iranian variety which contains 6.82%. In May 2020, Kashmiri saffron was given a geographical indication tag. The spice ''shahi zeera'' or imperial cumin or black cumin belongs to Apiaceae (parsley) family and was initially available in the jungles of Gurez Valley. These darker seeds unlike the regular brown ''zeera'' are of superior quality because of their smell, relative rarity and shape.
+<!--T:51-->
 Among the spices used:
+<!--T:52-->
 *  Kashmiri [[chilli pepper]] (''martswangun'') — chilies are grown locally in Kashmir. When they turn red, they are dried and ground into powder form. Powdered red chilies are moderately hot colouring agents that are used for most meat and some vegetarian dishes. The taste varies with the region they are being cultivated, from areas such as Bugam, Tangmarg, Bandipora, Dangerpora, Anantnag and Noorbagh. Chillies of Bugam are the most bitter in taste, while Noorbagh chillies have less seeds and are spicier than the ones grown in other areas. The local government has sought a geographical indication tag for chillies cultivated in Srinagar and Budgam districts.
 *  Shimla, Punjabi & Pepsi chilli pepper (''martswangun'')  — Shimla variety is used for making spicy ''qormas'', while Pepsi is usually imported from Rajasthan in India, and resembles a Pepsi bottle.
@@ Line 255: / Line 306: @@
 *  silver leaf (''varak'') — tissue-thin edible silver sheets used for garnishing pulao and meat dishes.
-Rock salt consumption is quite old in Kashmir. It was and is still being imported from Khewrah area of Pakistani Punjab, where it was first discovered by the troops of Alexander the Great in 326 B.C. Pre-independence, rock salt was imported via Mughal Road, which, before the advent of Mughals, was called ''Namak'' Route. After partition, its supply was barred.<ref name="Rock Salt Solution"/> Because of its benefits, it is now being consumed by almost one-fourth of the population.
+<!--T:53-->
+Rock salt consumption is quite old in Kashmir. It was and is still being imported from Khewrah area of Pakistani Punjab, where it was first discovered by the troops of Alexander the Great in 326 B.C. Pre-independence, rock salt was imported via Mughal Road, which, before the advent of Mughals, was called ''Namak'' Route. After partition, its supply was barred. Because of its benefits, it is now being consumed by almost one-fourth of the population.
+<!--T:54-->
 ==Specialties by season==
 [[File:Cherry blossoms in Doodhpathri southwest Jammu Kashmir India.jpg|thumb|A fruit tree in Spring.]]
-Spring is often considered a season of rejuvenation after a long and harsh winter. Picnics, of which the Kashmiris are very fond, are planned around the theme of food. The countryside is awash with white and pink flowers of almond (''badaam''), peach (''tsunun'') and cherry (''gilaas'') blossoms. The mustard fields join the show with their bright-yellow blooms. The pear (''tang'') blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers.<ref name="The Beauty of Kashmir in Spring"/> Apricot (''Tser'') blossoms are white in colour, often tinged with a pink or reddish hue. They grow from late spring through early summer.<ref name="kashmirlife.net"/> Beans are a spring vegetable. Cherries are a fruit of late spring and summer.Coriander (''danival'') is a cool herb whose season predominates between spring and summer in cooler areas. Garlic (''rohan'') is found mainly in spring and through fall season. Melons (''kharbooz'') are a fruit grown in spring and summer.<ref name="kashmirlife.net"/> Tender spring-time ''haakh'' (collard greens) are called ''kaanul''.[[File:Taobat, Neelum valley, Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Trout fishing, such as here in the river Taobat in Kashmir, is open during the summer months.]]The season of harvesting lotus stem (''nadur'') starts in September.  The ''samovar'' bubbles in a corner, spreading the sweet fragrance of saffron and cardamom in the air. Cookie-shaped ''kandi kulchas'' made of flour, butter, sugar and sprinkled with poppy seeds are passed around to be dipped into the tea and relished. Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area.  Dandelion leaves, also known as ''haand'' in Kashmir, are foraged on foot. Going to the countryside, one can see paddy being cut with sickles and then stacked in huge piles to dry. Chestnuts are roasted in the dying embers. Bulbous garlic and red potatoes jostle for space. Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district. Going towards the hilly areas one can see the maize and walnut trees with their fruit getting ready to be harvested.<ref name="greaterkashmir.com"/> Going towards the apple producing areas of Sopore in North Kashmir or Shopian in South Kashmir, one can see cartons of apple being transported to various parts of the country.
+Spring is often considered a season of rejuvenation after a long and harsh winter. Picnics, of which the Kashmiris are very fond, are planned around the theme of food. The countryside is awash with white and pink flowers of almond (''badaam''), peach (''tsunun'') and cherry (''gilaas'') blossoms. The mustard fields join the show with their bright-yellow blooms. The pear (''tang'') blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers. Apricot (''Tser'') blossoms are white in colour, often tinged with a pink or reddish hue. They grow from late spring through early summer. Beans are a spring vegetable. Cherries are a fruit of late spring and summer.Coriander (''danival'') is a cool herb whose season predominates between spring and summer in cooler areas. Garlic (''rohan'') is found mainly in spring and through fall season. Melons (''kharbooz'') are a fruit grown in spring and summer. Tender spring-time ''haakh'' (collard greens) are called ''kaanul''.[[File:Taobat, Neelum valley, Kashmir.jpg|thumb|Trout fishing, such as here in the river Taobat in Kashmir, is open during the summer months.]]The season of harvesting lotus stem (''nadur'') starts in September.  The ''samovar'' bubbles in a corner, spreading the sweet fragrance of saffron and cardamom in the air. Cookie-shaped ''kandi kulchas'' made of flour, butter, sugar and sprinkled with poppy seeds are passed around to be dipped into the tea and relished. Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area.  Dandelion leaves, also known as ''haand'' in Kashmir, are foraged on foot. Going to the countryside, one can see paddy being cut with sickles and then stacked in huge piles to dry. Chestnuts are roasted in the dying embers. Bulbous garlic and red potatoes jostle for space. Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district. Going towards the hilly areas one can see the maize and walnut trees with their fruit getting ready to be harvested. Going towards the apple producing areas of Sopore in North Kashmir or Shopian in South Kashmir, one can see cartons of apple being transported to various parts of the country.
-During the long winters the days are short, sunlight and electricity in short supply, so there is not much that can liven up existence except interesting food, so it constitutes a major interest of the Kashmiris' lives.<ref name="Sal: A Feast of Kashmiri Cuisine"/> On window sills and terraces, one can spot small piles of aubergines, cherry tomatoes, gourds and turnips being sun-dried. There is ample time and the ''daan'' (Kashmiri traditional stove) with its twin stoves (''Chaer'' in Kashmiri) ignited by fire wood placed in one inlet) is always ready to oblige long hours of cooking despite the shortages of electricity. When all village roads remained blocked due to heavy snowfall and villagers have to use oil lamps or kerosene lanterns, the entire family is called to the kitchen where flavour of the overnight ''shab deg'' fills the entire space. Kohlrabi (''monje'') is cold tolerant, and continues to grow on the fields in winter, so much that a little frost even helps it.
+<!--T:55-->
+During the long winters the days are short, sunlight and electricity in short supply, so there is not much that can liven up existence except interesting food, so it constitutes a major interest of the Kashmiris' lives. On window sills and terraces, one can spot small piles of aubergines, cherry tomatoes, gourds and turnips being sun-dried. There is ample time and the ''daan'' (Kashmiri traditional stove) with its twin stoves (''Chaer'' in Kashmiri) ignited by fire wood placed in one inlet) is always ready to oblige long hours of cooking despite the shortages of electricity. When all village roads remained blocked due to heavy snowfall and villagers have to use oil lamps or kerosene lanterns, the entire family is called to the kitchen where flavour of the overnight ''shab deg'' fills the entire space. Kohlrabi (''monje'') is cold tolerant, and continues to grow on the fields in winter, so much that a little frost even helps it.
+<!--T:56-->
 ==List of dishes==
 Some noted Kashmiri dishes include:
+<!--T:57-->
 ===Barbecue===
 [[File:Sheekh Kebabs.jpg|thumb|''Tujji'' and Kababs.]] [[File:Kabab wazwan.jpg|thumb|Kashmiri kababs can be eaten as a snack or a meal with rice.]]
@@ Line 271: / Line 327: @@
 One version of the origin of kababs is the one in which Turkish soldiers were first known to grill chunks of meat on open fires. Kashmir's kababs are cooked with local spices and accompanied with dips:
+<!--T:58-->
 * ''Kabab'', condimented minced meat, roasted or fried, on skewers. According to chef Ghulam Nabi Dar (aka ''Bitte Waaze''), the meat for the kabab is first minced with a very sharp knife (''haché au couteau''), then it requires an egg, cumin, cardamom and garlic, then it needs to be minced some more until it becomes a paste, then it is mounted on 1 m long skewers to be reheated the day after.
 *  ''Kokur kabab'', chicken kebab.
@@ Line 289: / Line 346: @@
 *  ''Kaleeng'', thick membrane that covers sheep's head, skull and all, chopped coarsely and set to cook with spices and minimal liquid over a low fire for hours.
-===Breakfast===
+===Breakfast=== <!--T:59-->
+<!--T:60-->
 For the average Kashmiri, breakfast normally means fresh bread from the local bakery and a cup of ''noon chai'' (salt tea). While the bread is there in all the seasons for the breakfast, its accompaniments change. Some affordable luxuries include:[[File:The Great Kashmiri Salt tea.png|thumb|Kashmiri noon chai.]]
 * ''Harisa''. Made by specialised cooks called ''harisaguyr'', ''Harisa'' is a popular meat preparation made for breakfast, it is slow cooked with spices in a special underground oven for a 24-hour period and hand stirred. A good ''harisa'' entails a meticulous mincing of deboned mutton, mixed with local rice, fennel seeds, cinnamon, cardamom and salt. Cooked on sim fire for at least 6 to 8 hours, boiling smoky mustard oil and some milk is poured while the wooden masher continues to stir. Small kebabs are made to be served along with and also a small serving of Methi (lamb's intestines cooked in fenugreek) and tempered onion rings. The dish is so tasty that one 18th century Afghan governor, who came here during the Afghan Rule, is believed to have over-eaten himself to death.
@@ Line 299: / Line 357: @@
 *  ''Vushki vath'', barley meal porridge. Cooked as a staple food in some hilly villages of Kashmir, where rice or maize is not easily available or grown.
+<!--T:61-->
 ===Wazwan dishes===
 [[File:TabakMaaz wazwan.jpg|thumb|Tabakhmaaz.]]
 [[File:Kashmiri Aab Gosht.jpg|thumb|''Aab Gosh''.]]
+<!--T:62-->
 Unlike most dishes of the Indian subcontinent where the flavour is added to the food while cooking on the flames, the wazwan flavours are added while the dish is still uncooked by adding flavoured water to the preparation or soaking in flavoured water (osmosis):
+<!--T:63-->
 * ''Tabakhmaaz'', rib racks in ghee with sweet fat lodged between lacquered slips of meat Kashmiri Hindus commonly refer to this dish as ''Qabargah''. It seems to have travelled from Kazakhstan where it is known by its Pandit name, ''Qabargah''. While ''Qabargah'' is simmered on a low heat for a longer duration and then fried very quickly, ''Tabakhmaaz'' is boiled with salt and garlic and characterised by a slightly elastic texture.
 *  ''Tang ta lahabi kabab'', whole Kashmiri pears and mutton kababs that often go with a tomato-yoghurt gravy.
@@ Line 320: / Line 381: @@
 * ''Kokur danival kormeh'', chicken cooked in curd based gravy, flavoured with saffron and fresh coriander.
-===Soups===
+===Soups=== <!--T:64-->
+<!--T:65-->
 *  ''Tsatt/maaz rass'', mutton stock with mutton pieces flavoured with aromatic spices and salt.
 *  ''Channa rass'', easily made chickpea soup.
+<!--T:66-->
 ===Domestic meat stews===
 [[File:Shabdeg Main Ingredients.JPG|thumb|''Shab deg'', the Kashmiri ''pot-au-feu'']]
@@ Line 367: / Line 430: @@
 *  ''Kokur shyaem'', chicken cutlets in yoghurt.
+<!--T:67-->
 === Innards and offal ===
 *  ''Chuste'', spicy dry curry of goat's intestines.
@@ Line 379: / Line 443: @@
 * [[File:Goshtaba wazwan.jpg|thumb|''Goshtabeh''.]]''Pachi ta heri ras''s, cooked legs with hoofs, and head of sheep or goat.
+<!--T:68-->
 ===Meatballs===
 The ''wazas'' are trained for years to learn the art of making the right cuts and grounding the meat to perfection. Traditionally, the lamb is mashed with walnut wood:[[File:Rista wazwan.jpg|thumb|Riste.]]
@@ Line 387: / Line 452: @@
 * ''Safed riste'', Goshtabeh meatballs are the biggest, next rista and palak rista meatballs are the tiniest.
+<!--T:69-->
 ===Vegetarian sides===
 Kashmir produces tons of vegetables and forest produce. The traditional dishes are:[[File:Kashmiri Dum aloo.jpeg|thumb|Dum Olav.]]
@@ Line 451: / Line 517: @@
 *  ''Variphali olav'', potato curry with hot lentil dumplings. This dish is a Punjabi preparation but very much enjoyed by Kashmiris.
+<!--T:70-->
 ===Mushrooms===
 [[File:Morchella esculenta grouping 01.jpg|thumb|The much-prized ''kanaguchhi'' (''[[Morchella esculenta]]'')]]
 Native to the Himalayan foothills, ''Guchhi'' or ''kanaguchhi'' mushrooms (species in the genus ''[[Morchella]]'', commonly known as ''morels'' elsewhere) are highly prized not only in Kashmir but internationally, particularly in European gastronomy. With the exception of a few very limited and experimental successes, efforts to [[Fungiculture|cultivate]] ''(kana)guchhi'' or ''morels'' at a large scale have been unsuccessful and consumption relies on the harvest of wild mushrooms. As a result, these mushrooms rank among the most expensive of all fungi, with a kilogram of such mushrooms costing up to 30,000 [[Indian rupee|INR]] in India (as of 2023; approximately €330/kg, or US$350/kg).
+<!--T:71-->
 Traditional or well known dishes include:
+<!--T:72-->
 *  ''Kanaguchhi yakhean'', morels cooked in rich yoghurt gravy.
 *  ''Kanaguchhi matar masala'', an absolute flavour bomb of delicious morels picked by locals.
@@ Line 462: / Line 531: @@
 *  ''Shajkaan'', aka ''Kanpapar'' (''[[Geopora arenicola]]'') mushroom, fried with onions and tomatoes, or even prepared with milk.
+<!--T:73-->
 ===''Tschaman''===
-[[Paneer]] is called ''tschaman'' in Kashmiri. The spicing falls into the sweet-savoury spectrum which means using a lot of cinnamon, mace and clove alongside earthier spices like cumin seed and ground coriander.  The scarcity of fresh ginger in mountain geography also means that ground ginger is a spice staple.<ref name="sbs.com.au"/> Paneer recipes are:
+[[Paneer]] is called ''tschaman'' in Kashmiri. The spicing falls into the sweet-savoury spectrum which means using a lot of cinnamon, mace and clove alongside earthier spices like cumin seed and ground coriander.  The scarcity of fresh ginger in mountain geography also means that ground ginger is a spice staple. Paneer recipes are:
+<!--T:74-->
 *  ''Tschaman Kanti'', cubes of cottage cheese that are fried, tossed in select spices and stir fried with onions and tomatoes.
 *  ''Lyader Tschaman.'' ''lyadur'' means yellow which is due to the presence of turmeric, and tschaman is cottage cheese. The term 'yellow gravy' might not do justice to the complexity of flavor you get from layering nine spices, some of them whole, with green chilies and simmering them in water before thickening the sauce with milk. British Indian chef Romy Gill called it 'a bowl of golden yellow deliciousness'.
@@ Line 479: / Line 550: @@
 *  ''Tschaman Vangan'', panir and brinjals.
-===Chutneys and ''raitas''===
+===Chutneys and ''raitas''=== <!--T:75-->
+<!--T:76-->
 Called the shadowy underbelly of the Kashmiri wazwan, they add real colour to the dishes. They are expected to be served free, when Kashmiris go out to eat or pack food. The varieties of spicy spreads are:
+<!--T:77-->
 * ''Zamut Dodh'', plain homemade yoghurt.
 * ''Muj Chetein'', translates to radish in yoghurt. A unique blend of grated radish and yoghurt, seasoned with a pinch of roasted cumin. The Kashmiri version of the quintessential ''raita''.
@@ Line 504: / Line 577: @@
 *  ''Dodh Al/Al Raita'', bottle Gourd in yoghurt.
-===Meat stir-fries===
+===Meat stir-fries=== <!--T:78-->
+<!--T:79-->
 * ''Mutton/Chicken Kanti'', small boneless mutton/chicken pieces, marinated, shallow fried in fresh onions, tomatoes and green chillies.
 *  ''Matsch Barith Karel'', bitter gourd stuffed with minced lamb.
@@ Line 514: / Line 588: @@
 * ''Kaed Pakora'', brain fritters.
-===Fish===
+===Fish=== <!--T:80-->
+<!--T:81-->
 The age-old practice of shadow fishing is locally known as ''Tchaayi Gaad'' in Anchar lake in the Soura vicinity of Srinagar city. Fishermen row their boats early in the morning, breaking the frozen part of the lake to catch fish with a harpoon. They create a shadow on the nook of their boat by hiding themselves under a blanket or a makeshift umbrella made of straw to attract the fish and later strike the approaching fish with the harpoon.  The banks of the lake of yore used to be dotted with thickets of willow trees under whose shadow the fish would take refuge during summers, thereby easing the task for the local fishermen to catch them. Common fish dishes are:
+<!--T:82-->
 *  ''Nader ti Gaad'', fish (''Bilose'', ''Zob'', ''Indian Major Carp'', ''Catla'', ''Rohu'', ''Margarita'', ''Mahseer'', ''Snow Trout'', ''Niger'', ''Chush'', ''Khront'', ''Churu'' etc.) cooked with lotus stem, a delicacy cooked on festival days like Eid, Navroze and Gaadi Batti (Festival of Kashmiri Pandits).
 *  ''Mujh Gaad'', a dish of radishes with a choice of fish.
@@ Line 529: / Line 605: @@
 *  ''Gaad Ta Obuj'', wild ''obuj''(rumex obtusifolius) with fish.
 * ''Hogada Ta Haakh/Bum'', dried fish (''bolinao'' and others) with 'karam' saag or dried water-lily stems.
-* ''Kanz Ta Gaad/Guran'', fish or small fish or very small dried fish, cooked with slightly fermented but non-alcoholic drink ''sadre kaenz''.<ref name=Kilam1991/><ref name="Sal: A Feast of Kashmiri Cuisine"/> In the old days, when one family in a neighbourhood would make ''kaenz'' it was understood it belonged equally to the rest to be used whenever required. The heat of the generously used spices like chili and ginger powder in this popular dish is supposed to be tempered by the cooling effect of this rice beer-like brew.
+* ''Kanz Ta Gaad/Guran'', fish or small fish or very small dried fish, cooked with slightly fermented but non-alcoholic drink ''sadre kaenz''. In the old days, when one family in a neighbourhood would make ''kaenz'' it was understood it belonged equally to the rest to be used whenever required. The heat of the generously used spices like chili and ginger powder in this popular dish is supposed to be tempered by the cooling effect of this rice beer-like brew.
 * ''Fari/Phari'', smoked fish. A winter delicacy prepared in a particular method by only a few remaining households in Srinagar's Tiploo Mohalla. The fish used is a variety of trout belonging to the genus ''Schizothorax''.
-*  ''Phari Ta Haakh'', smoked fish with collard greens. The skin of the smoked fish is removed and it is fried until it turns reddish-brown. The fish is added to collard greens and cooked until all the water is absorbed and oil floats on top.<ref name="lifestyle.livemint.com"/> Best had with steamed rice, and best not to reheat the dish.
+*  ''Phari Ta Haakh'', smoked fish with collard greens. The skin of the smoked fish is removed and it is fried until it turns reddish-brown. The fish is added to collard greens and cooked until all the water is absorbed and oil floats on top. Best had with steamed rice, and best not to reheat the dish.
-===Salads===
+===Salads=== <!--T:83-->
+<!--T:84-->
 *  ''Salaad'', a plate of sliced vegetables precisely cucumber, tomatoes and carrots, decorated in concentric circles on a plate. A side with lemon squeezed on top.
 *  ''Razmah Salaad/Chat,'' kidney beans salad.
+<!--T:85-->
 ===Rice===
 [[File:Kashmiri pulao (cropped).JPG|thumb|Kashmiri polav.]]
 Kashmiris eat much more rice than the people of the Jammu region:
+<!--T:86-->
 *  ''Batta'', steamed white rice.
 *  ''Buzz Batta'', fried rice.
@@ Line 557: / Line 636: @@
 *  ''Byael Tomul'', leftover fermented newly sprouted paddy seeds yield this delicious snack. It is sun-dried and baked in an earthen vessel placed upon a ''choola'' (oven), cooled and pounded in a wooden mortar. After cleaning the husk, it is eaten with dry walnut kernels and salt tea.
-===Breads===
+===Breads=== <!--T:87-->
+<!--T:88-->
 *  ''Kinke Tschut'', a whole wheat unleavened flatbread cooked on a griddle.
 *  ''Parott'', a buttery flatbread. A one-kilo paratha is served outside a Sufi shrine in Kashmir. Celebrity chef Sanjeev Kapoor has stated he used to make ''rumali roti'' but not such a big paratha.
@@ Line 573: / Line 653: @@
 *  ''Vushki Tschut'', baked rounds of barley flour.
-===Eggs===
+===Eggs=== <!--T:89-->
+<!--T:90-->
 In certain rural areas, the tradition of putting an egg or two in ''kanger'' (fire pot) is known to each individual. The fragrance of an egg cooking in the ''kanger'' would trigger the enzymes signalling the egg is ready:
+<!--T:91-->
 *  ''Thool Mond'', omelette.
 *  ''Haak Ta Thool'', collard greens and Eggs together.
@@ Line 587: / Line 669: @@
 *  [[File:Capra falconeri hepteneri.jpg|thumb|''Markhor'' (''capra falconeri'').]]''Thool Ta Obuj'', kashmiri ''obuj'', a wild growing plant with a sour taste, with eggs.
+<!--T:92-->
 ===Game (''shikaar'')===
 [[File:Ducks on Lake Dal, Kashmir (8142492655).jpg|thumb|Ducks on Dal Lake.]]
 Going by estimates, on an average 50-60 birds are killed every day in wetlands across Kashmir: Hunted game (''shikaar'') is not generally cooked immediately. It has to be hung for some days (''faisander'') before dressing it for cooking. Hanging makes the meat suppler and less fibrous, making it tastier to eat.
+<!--T:93-->
 In British India, ''markhor'' (screw horn goat) was considered to be among the most challenging game species. It is the largest wild goat in the world. It is locally regarded as the tastiest wild meat.
+<!--T:94-->
 Indian wild boar was introduced in the Himalayan region by Maharaja Gulab Singh, a Dogra military general. Its meat was a great delicacy for the Dogras and Sikhs, but after 1947 its population started dwindling in the Muslim-majority region.
+<!--T:95-->
 Game dishes are:
+<!--T:96-->
 *  ''Pacchin Dumpokhta'', pintail. Called the king of the winter cuisine in Kashmir, it is a delicacy enjoyed by Kashmiri Pandits who would not normally eat chicken. The migratory bird looks like a duck but can fly with great speed. It comes to wetlands of Kashmir during winter. It is deep fried and cooked with hot spices.> The meat under the shining bluish golden feathers is tough but delicious and has a warming effect.
 *  ''Batook Palak'', duck with spinach.
@@ Line 606: / Line 693: @@
 [[File:Goji Rajma Masala (11962820385).jpg|thumb|''Razmah Gogjee'', red kidney beans with sweet turnips.]]
-===Dals===
+===Dals=== <!--T:97-->
+<!--T:98-->
 Kashmiri Pandits who were vegetarian and did not even eat onions and tomatoes were known as ''Dal Battas'' (Dal Pandits):
+<!--T:99-->
 *  ''Dal Nadur'', Lotus stem boiled with green beans to make a dal.
 *  ''Vaari Muth Dal'', Black Turtle Beans (Kashmiri Vaari Muth).
@@ Line 624: / Line 713: @@
 *  ''Vangun Hachi Ta Moonge Dal'', Dried brinjals with moong.
-===Fermented foods===
+===Fermented foods=== <!--T:100-->
+<!--T:101-->
 Various varieties of Kashmiri pickles are:
-*  ''Aanchar'', pickles (chicken, mutton, fish, greylag goose,<ref name="Ahmed-2006"/> mango, cherry, bitter gourd, amla, apple, apricot, plum, garlic, turnip, chillies, knol-khols, radishes, carrots, onions, cauliflowers, brinjals, lotus roots, green almonds, hard pears, grapes).
+<!--T:102-->
+*  ''Aanchar'', pickles (chicken, mutton, fish, greylag goose, mango, cherry, bitter gourd, amla, apple, apricot, plum, garlic, turnip, chillies, knol-khols, radishes, carrots, onions, cauliflowers, brinjals, lotus roots, green almonds, hard pears, grapes).
-===Street food===
+===Street food=== <!--T:103-->
+<!--T:104-->
 [[File:Kashmiri street food (8139530127).jpg|thumb|''Nadur maunj'' (lotus stem fritters).]]
 *  ''Makai Waet'', roasted corn.
@@ Line 652: / Line 744: @@
 * ''Kruhun Masale/Dub Maha'', a poor man's shawarma, a thin ''lavas'' is made of refined flour in which boiled chickpeas are rolled and then dipped in tomato chutney.
 * ''Razmah Masale'', ''rajma'' with corn.
-*  ''Masale Tschot'', chickpea masala spread over a ''lavas'' (kashmiri naan). The preparation for making ''masaal'' begins during the night or early hours of the morning. Then different kinds of chutneys or sauces are prepared.<ref name="aa.com.tr"/> Radish chutney mixed with fresh curd, green chilli, coriander, pepper and salt is served with it and lastly the soft bread is used for wrapping.
+*  ''Masale Tschot'', chickpea masala spread over a ''lavas'' (kashmiri naan). The preparation for making ''masaal'' begins during the night or early hours of the morning. Then different kinds of chutneys or sauces are prepared. Radish chutney mixed with fresh curd, green chilli, coriander, pepper and salt is served with it and lastly the soft bread is used for wrapping.
 *  ''Egg Roll''
 *  ''Dastar Katlam'', famous ''halwai'' food.
@@ Line 659: / Line 751: @@
 * ''Jalgoz'', peanuts.
+<!--T:105-->
 ===Cheese===
 The nomadic shepherds of the Kashmir valley, ''Gujjars'' and ''Bakerwals'' move their herd of dairy cattle and their own settlements up and down the mountains based on changing seasons:
+<!--T:106-->
 * ''Maesh Crari''., described as ''the mozzarella of Kashmir''. The discs are first coated with chilli, turmeric and salt, and then fried in mustard oil until they form a crisp, golden outer layer and the inside stays soft and creamy.
 * ''Kudan'', a rare Gujjar goat cheese that looks like paneer but is more crumbly and akin to feta. Kudan is prepared in Bakerwal tents by heating some mustard oil in a pot on fire and then mixing some salt, turmeric and chilli along with the ''kudan'' cheese curds. Everything melts together into a golden liquid flecked with red chilli and small nuggets of ''kudan''.
+<!--T:107-->
 ===Desserts===
-Kashmiris are fond of sugar.<ref name="Life"/> Common sweetmeats are:
+Kashmiris are fond of sugar. Common sweetmeats are:
 *  ''Halwa'', sweetmeat originally made of honey, camel's milk, cashew nuts, and many other ingredients and brought from the Persian Gulf, ''via'' Bombay, in saucers to United India in the nineteenth century. ''Halwa'' tradition reached Kashmir towards the end of the nineteenth century.
 *  ''Chounth Halwa''.
@@ Line 688: / Line 783: @@
 *  ''Dry Fruit Kulfi''.
-===English pastry===
+===English pastry=== <!--T:108-->
-Before 1918, Abdul Ahad Bhat, of Ahdoos, was under the tutelage of English bakers at Nedou's, a hotel in Srinagar owned by Austro-Swiss Michael Nedou. He quickly picked up the art of baking, and started a small bakery, the first by a Kashmiri at that time. Ahdoos's forte was English goodies, and as India inched towards freedom from British Rule he added Kashmiri items to the menu.<ref name="Bread, butter and bakerkhani"/> Mughal Darbar was established on Residency Road in 1984 and on the road parallel is Jee Enn, founded by Ghulam Nabi Sofi in 1972. Many of the owners and staff of these new bakeries have trained in Ahdoos. The variety of pastries include:
+<!--T:109-->
+Before 1918, Abdul Ahad Bhat, of Ahdoos, was under the tutelage of English bakers at Nedou's, a hotel in Srinagar owned by Austro-Swiss Michael Nedou. He quickly picked up the art of baking, and started a small bakery, the first by a Kashmiri at that time. Ahdoos's forte was English goodies, and as India inched towards freedom from British Rule he added Kashmiri items to the menu. Mughal Darbar was established on Residency Road in 1984 and on the road parallel is Jee Enn, founded by Ghulam Nabi Sofi in 1972. Many of the owners and staff of these new bakeries have trained in Ahdoos. The variety of pastries include:
+<!--T:110-->
 * ''Chicken or Mutton Patty'', meat seasoned with salt, pepper and garlic, encased in layered puff pastry.
 *  ''Puffs''.
@@ Line 701: / Line 798: @@
 *  ''Walnut Fudge'', an exclusivity of Kashmir's Moonlight Bakery, the recipe contains 'snow-white walnuts' from Uri and honey and dates from local market.
+<!--T:111-->
 ===Qandarwan===
 The Kashmir Valley is noted for its bakery tradition, that of the ''qandarwan''. Nowhere else in the Indian subcontinent can be found such a huge variety of leavened breads, another pointer to the Central Asian influence on Kashmiris' food habits. On the [[Dal Lake]] in Kashmir or in downtown Srinagar, bakery shops are elaborately laid out. Bakers sell various kinds of breads with golden brown crusts topped with sesame and poppy seeds.
+<!--T:112-->
 Different kinds of traditional Kashmiri breads include:
+<!--T:113-->
 * ''Tsoet'' and ''Tsoechvor/Tilvor'' are crisp and flaky small round breads topped with ''khaskhash'' (poppy) and ''til'' (sesame) seeds. A local bagel of about three inches diameter and six inches circumference, the upper half is soft and the lower crust is crispy. It is the evening/afternoon bread.
 * ''Sheermal'', a saffron flavoured traditional flatbread said to have originated in Iran. It is offered in both sweet and flavourful versions. The ''sheermal'' bread is usually dented with multiple patterns bordering on corresponding lines.
 * ''Baqerkhayn'' (puff pastry), Kashmiri [[Bakarkhani|bakerkhani]] has a special place in Kashmiri cuisine. It is similar to a round naan in appearance, but crisp and layered, and sprinkled with sesame seeds. It is typically consumed hot during breakfast.
-* ''Lavasa'',  thin unleavened flat bread, white in colour, made of ''maida'' (finely-milled wheat flour). It is a paper-thin blistered naan.<ref name="Gull-2019" /> Some lavasas are soft while others are crispy.
+* ''Lavasa'',  thin unleavened flat bread, white in colour, made of ''maida'' (finely-milled wheat flour). It is a paper-thin blistered naan. Some lavasas are soft while others are crispy.
 * ''Girda'', made with dough that has been fermented overnight, rolls of dough are flattened out by hand and finger impressions are pressed into it to give you lines that run down its length. ''Girda'' and ''lavas'' are served with butter.
 * ''Kulcha'', baked exclusively with ghee, this small, hard, dry, crumbly bread, is usually round in shape. It is decorated by placing a peanut in the centre of the upper face.
 * ''Roth khabar'', a cake-like sweet bread made in traditional tandoor and covered with dry fruits.
+<!--T:114-->
 ===Wazwan===
-{{excerpt|Wazwan}}
+{{excerpt|Wazwan|paragraph=2-3}}
-==Beverages==
+==Beverages== <!--T:115-->
+<!--T:116-->
 === Noon Chai or Sheer Chai ===
 Kashmiris are heavy tea drinkers. Kashmiris don't use the word "Kashmiri Chai". The word "''Noon''" in Kashmiri means salt. The most popular drink is a pinkish coloured salted tea called "[[Noon Chai|noon chai]]." It is made with black tea, milk, salt and [[bicarbonate of soda]]. The particular color of the tea is a result of its unique method of preparation and the addition of soda. The Kashmiri Hindus more commonly refer to this chai as "Sheer Chai." The [[Kashmiri Muslims]] refer to it as "Noon Chai" or "Namkeen Chai", both meaning salty tea.
+<!--T:117-->
 Noon Chai or Sheer Chai is a common breakfast tea in Kashmiri households and is taken with breads like [[baqerkhani]] brought fresh from ''Qandur (Kashmiri : کاندر )'' or bakers. It is one of the most basic and essential food items in a Kashmiri household. Tea was as served in large [[samovar|samavar]]s. Now, the use of Samavars is limited to special occasions and normally kettles are used.
+<!--T:118-->
 Nuts like almonds and pistachios and edible rose petals can also be added before serving and sometimes ''malai'' or fresh cream is added to give the tea viscosity and richness.
-===Natural mineral water===
+===Natural mineral water=== <!--T:119-->
+<!--T:120-->
 According to a 2022 study by the University of Kashmir, 87% of springs in Kashmir valley have excellent to good water quality. A large part of the society, particularly those living in rural and backward areas, depends on spring water. Most villagers believe spring water is the purest form of water due to a spiritual connection with the shrines.
+<!--T:121-->
 From one of the oldest and purest spring waters of Kashmir, the Kokernag Spring, Bringi Spring Water has high alkalinity and is well balanced with minerals.
-===Babribyol===
+===Babribyol=== <!--T:122-->
+<!--T:123-->
 The ''Babribyol sharbat'' is a concoction of sweetened milk, rose water or ''Rooh Afza'' syrup, and soaked sweet basil seeds that are grown locally.
-===Lyaess===
+===Lyaess=== <!--T:124-->
+<!--T:125-->
 Made from yoghurt or kefir, Kashmiri lassi (''lyaess'') is a liquid, salty way to drink up yoghurt. The process of churning the buttermilk with a wooden ''choomph'' or churner is rhythmic and there is an art involved. The yoghurt has to be churned the right way, the buttery fats have to float to the top in a nice froth, the spices and dried mint leaves have to be just right.
-===Sadr-e-kaenz===
+===Sadr-e-kaenz=== <!--T:126-->
+<!--T:127-->
 This fermented rice water drink is supposed to be very good for a sluggish liver.
-===Shahi Sheera===
+===Shahi Sheera=== <!--T:128-->
+<!--T:129-->
 Made by extracting the juice of different berries, it is prepared at home during Ramadan. It features in 1977 Kashmiri film ''Arnimaal'' where guests are sipping on the beverage during wedding festivities.
-==Food and beverage pairings==
+==Food and beverage pairings== <!--T:130-->
+<!--T:131-->
 The traditional Kashmiri wazwan, which comprises slow-cooked meat dishes is a wonderful pairing that enhances the spicy notes of whisky. The Loire Valley wine [[Sancerre]] goes well with Kashmiri ''goshtabeh''. A ripe fruity red works well with the full bodied ''roghan josh''. A recommended wine to try with is Montepulciano.
-==Special occasions and festivals==
+==Special occasions and festivals== <!--T:132-->
-===Eid-ul-Fitr===
+===Eid-ul-Fitr=== <!--T:133-->
-While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes ''khajur ka laddoo'' (date balls), ''babribyol'' (basil seeds), ''kulfi'', ''phirin'', ''seemni'', fruit chaat, fruit custard, ''kateer'' (a drink loaded with health benefits) and ''noon chai''.<ref name="Bashir-2022"/> The smell of slow-cooked mutton hovers, fragrant and sultry in the air, and despite the familiar air of unpredictability in Srinagar, spirits are high and streets are filled with happy greetings of ''Eid Mubarak''.
+<!--T:134-->
+While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes ''khajur ka laddoo'' (date balls), ''babribyol'' (basil seeds), ''kulfi'', ''phirin'', ''seemni'', fruit chaat, fruit custard, ''kateer'' (a drink loaded with health benefits) and ''noon chai''. The smell of slow-cooked mutton hovers, fragrant and sultry in the air, and despite the familiar air of unpredictability in Srinagar, spirits are high and streets are filled with happy greetings of ''Eid Mubarak''.
+<!--T:135-->
 Eid-ul-Fitr marks the end of 30 days of Ramadan. After attending Eid prayers at a mosque or [[Eidgah]], families return home to welcome guests. A common tradition on Eid morning is serving [[Kahwah|Kehwa]] (saffron tea) and chai (milk tea), accompanied by an assortment of bakery items such as cakes, cookies, ghee tchot (a tandoor-baked flatbread), pastries, and savoury snacks like chicken and mutton patties.
+<!--T:136-->
 Well-to-do families often prepare select [[Wazwan]] dishes, including kebabs, rista (meatballs in gravy), shami kebabs, and chicken pieces. Other delicacies like kanti (stir-fried meat), mutton or chicken tikki are served with sauces and green chutney (dhaniya chutney), especially when entertaining special guests like sons-in-law.
+<!--T:137-->
 For lunch, rice is the staple, served with a variety of homemade dishes, almost all featuring meat. A notable preparation is yakhni, a traditional dish made with fresh curd and mild spices, offering a rich yet subtle flavor.
-===Eid-ul-Adha===
+===Eid-ul-Adha=== <!--T:138-->
+<!--T:139-->
 The day begins with the ''Fajr'' (dawn) prayer and a breakfast of bakery goods with ''dodh kehwa'' (milky green tea). As the festival draws to a close, most well-to-do families start placing orders with the ''wazas'' for the feast, which is cooked by chefs at their own places and then sold to the customers for serving at their homes. Sacrificial animals include Delhi Walla, Merino Cross, Bakerwal and Kashmiri varieties of sheep.
-===Urs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood===
+===Urs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood=== <!--T:140-->
+<!--T:141-->
 Only vegetarian food is supplied to devotees. Majority of people in Batmaloo and adjoining areas turn vegetarian and do not eat meat or chicken. They widely consume dried turnips (''gogji aare'') because it is believed, during Dawood's time, sundried turnips helped Kashmir survive a famine.
-===Urs of Khwaja Masood Wali===
+===Urs of Khwaja Masood Wali=== <!--T:142-->
+<!--T:143-->
 The people of Pampore cook dried vegetables, eggs, cheese and other food stuff except meat and invite their relatives, friends on lunch or dinner to keep the tradition of the saint alive.
-===Urs of Dastageer Sahab===
+===Urs of Dastageer Sahab=== <!--T:144-->
+<!--T:145-->
 In Khanyar and Sarai Bala areas of Srinagar, the devotees are seen outside the shrines where local and non-local business establishments install their carts and are seen selling the Kashmiri traditional food stuff. Pious men sing hearty hymns over offerings of dates and sweets.
-===Urs of Raeshmol Saheb===
+===Urs of Raeshmol Saheb=== <!--T:146-->
+<!--T:147-->
 People in Anantnag district in southern Kashmir quit eating meat as a mark of respect for the 16th century mystic. Rarely is a butcher shop open during these seven days. For three-and-a-half days each before and after the saint's Urs, people eat radish braised in tamarind.
-===Herath===
+===Herath=== <!--T:148-->
+<!--T:149-->
 For Kashmiri Pandits, the ''prasad'' offering at Shivratri puja is a charger piled high with rice, cooked lamb and fish, and a luscious raw fish in its entirety atop the pile.
-===Har Navum===
+===Har Navum=== <!--T:150-->
+<!--T:151-->
 On the 9th day of the month of ''ashad'', Pandits in Kashmir offer the deity Sharika yellow rice cooked with turmeric, a little oil and salt along with ''tsarvan'' (goat's liver).
+<!--T:152-->
 === Navreh ===
 The festival of [[Navreh]], the Kashmiri [[New Year]], is incomplete without ''nadur''. A celebration often confused with the [[Nowruz]] of the [[Persians]] and [[Persianate culture]]s, Navreh is the welcoming of spring in the Northern hemisphere, and its date fluctuate, but always around to the [[March equinox]].
-==Diaspora and fusion cuisines==
+==Diaspora and fusion cuisines== <!--T:153-->
-Tibetan exiles in Kashmir, including members of Tibet's small Muslim population live in Srinagar, mainly in a small area near the 18th-century Hari Parbat fort. Popular ''momo'' (beef dumplings) shops and Tibetan restaurants are run by their children.<ref name="asia.nikkei.com"/> Tibetan options include Cantonese chicken and ''kumloo'' wonton, fried pasta stuffed with minced mushrooms.
+<!--T:154-->
+Tibetan exiles in Kashmir, including members of Tibet's small Muslim population live in Srinagar, mainly in a small area near the 18th-century Hari Parbat fort. Popular ''momo'' (beef dumplings) shops and Tibetan restaurants are run by their children. Tibetan options include Cantonese chicken and ''kumloo'' wonton, fried pasta stuffed with minced mushrooms.
+<!--T:155-->
 Kashmiri Sikh cuisine has a bit of influence from Punjab with onions and tomatoes, but the flavouring goes the Kashmiri way with elements such as ''badyaan'' (''saunf''). A large number of Indian tourists depend entirely on ''Vaishno Dhabas'', the Valley's generic non-A/C restaurants that serve all-vegetarian North Indian fare.
+<!--T:156-->
 == Cooking methods ==
 [[File:Wazwan prep.jpg|thumb|The master chefs, the ''waaze'' of Kashmir.]]Some Kashmiri cooking techniques are:
+<!--T:157-->
 === Blanching ===
 The stalks of dandelion (''haand'') with their spiky-edged leaves have to blanched four times so that they bear no bitterness.
+<!--T:158-->
 === Convection ===
 The traditional Kashmir food receives heat on two sides, top and bottom and the best results are obtained by slow heat using charcoal.
+<!--T:159-->
 === Braising ===
 The leaves of Kashmiri ''haakh'' are braised in lots of water. It is very important to ensure that the ''haakh'' stays submerged underwater during the initial cooking process using a wooden spatula or large spoon to continuously push the greens down. Mustard oil, which is used extensively in Kashmiri cuisine, imparts an extra flavour to the dish.
 [[File:Rista prep.jpg|thumb|Tenderising and preparing ''riste,'' one of the most important dishes in a Kashmiri feast.]]
+<!--T:160-->
 ===Court-bouillon===
 Much of Kashmiri cooking relies on a fragrant meat stock. The main skill of a ''wazwan'' lies in the preparation of this stock made of onions and shallots. Freshly shaped meatballs (''rista'' and ''goshtabeh'') are poached in this lamb stock flavoured with cinnamon and black cardamom, and simmered.
+<!--T:161-->
 ===Tempering===
 Whole spices must be fried in oil – clove, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves. Fried too little, and the dish will be lifeless, without fragrance. A second too much, and one will be left with nothing but bitterness. Hot ghee or mustard oil is poured on top and garnished with fried ''praan'' (shallots) paste & saffron extract.
+<!--T:162-->
 ===Caramelisation===
 Sliced onions are fried until golden brown and pureed with minimal water.
+<!--T:163-->
 ===Emulsification===
-The yoghurt must be fatty, thick.<ref name="theguardian.com"/> Dried mint, just a pinch, is added right at the end to freshen the dish.
+The yoghurt must be fatty, thick. Dried mint, just a pinch, is added right at the end to freshen the dish.
+<!--T:164-->
 ===Food colouring===
 Relevant dishes are further enhanced in colour by saffron extract (''rogan josh'' and ''rista'') or ''mawal'' (dried cockscomb flower). Kashmiri chilli is also added in excess sometimes to produce a red colour. Tomato is incorrectly used as a substitute when ''mawal'' and ''rattanjot'' are not available. No authentic version cooked in Kashmir has tomatoes.
+<!--T:165-->
 ===Simmering===
 The food gets its flavours and textures from the spices being slow cooked with ingredients until they let out their inherent juices and fats and melt together.
+<!--T:166-->
 ===Smoke point===
 Smoking mustard oil is a treatment known as ''durust'', and gets it ready to use after cooling off.
+<!--T:167-->
 ===Dum cooking===
 The cooking vessel in the ''shab deg'' is sealed with dough before being cooked over a simmering fire through the long winter night. Dum cooking was made popular by the Mughal courts around the 16th century.
+<!--T:168-->
 ===Tenderising===
 ''Goshtabeh'' and ''rista'', the two meatball dishes are rarely found outside the valley because their unique texture is enormously challenging. The sheep has to be freshly slaughtered and the meat pounded before rigor mortis sets. To incorporate air to make them light and fluffy, the meat undergoes a process of being folded while beaten.
+<!--T:169-->
 ===Cooking material===
 The quality of pots is important, according to ''wosta'' (ustad) or chef Nazir Ahmed Aram. He says they must have the right content of copper. Using wood (walnut and apple are the best) is important too. Cooking on gas is not the same.
-==Similarities with other cuisines==
+==Similarities with other cuisines== <!--T:170-->
+<!--T:171-->
 Much like Kashmir, its people, and its narrative traditions, Kashmiri cuisine too is an amalgam of influences from Central Asia, Persia, China, and the Indian subcontinent. Food recipes passed down from one culture to another are:
-* ''Aab Gosh'' (Kashmiri). ''Abgoosht'' or ''Abgusht'' is more so a one-pot Persian comfort food that is a rustic dish with wholesome ingredients. It has been enjoyed by Persians for centuries.<ref name="ABGOOSHT آبگوشت"/> There is a similar dish in Armenia, called Abgoosht stew, using beef instead of lamb.
+<!--T:172-->
+* ''Aab Gosh'' (Kashmiri). ''Abgoosht'' or ''Abgusht'' is more so a one-pot Persian comfort food that is a rustic dish with wholesome ingredients. It has been enjoyed by Persians for centuries. There is a similar dish in Armenia, called Abgoosht stew, using beef instead of lamb.
 *  ''Batte'' (Kashmiri). Short-grain, sticky rice is called ''bata'' in Afghanistan.
 * ''Harise'' (Kashmiri). ''Al Harees'' is a traditional Emirati dish consisting of wheat, meat(chicken) and salt. A simple, traditional Saudi dish using crushed wheat is called ''jareesh''. ''Harissa'', also known as ''herisseh'', ''harisa'' or ''keshkeg'' in Armenia is a wheat berry and meat porridge. The wheat, usually known as ''korkot'', is shelled making them quicker to cook. ''Boko Boko Harees'' in Burundian cuisine is a delicacy prepared with chicken, turmeric and bulgur wheat. ''Amritsari Hareesa'' is a famous dish of the winter season in Lahore, Pakistan and made with wheat and meat. It is seasoned with desi ghee and served with hot naan.
@@ Line 860: / Line 1,001: @@
 * ''Nadur'' (Kashmiri). In Afghan cuisine, ''Qormah e Nadroo'' is an onion-and-tomato-based stew using lamb meat or veal, yogurt, lotus roots and coriander.
 * ''Polav'' (Kashmiri). It looks as if ''pilaf'' was invented in Iran some time after the 10th century.The Turks call plain rice ''sade pilav''. Turkey sees ''pilav'' primarily as a side dish rather than a main course. Iran is famous for its ''polos'' made with aromatic ''domsiyah'' rice. The most characteristic ones are based on fruits such as cherries, quinces, or apricots. In Central Asia, the simplest recipe uses onions, meat and carrots. The extravagant court traditions of the Moghul school of cookery makes India home to some very elaborate ''pulaos''. Laborers from western India brought pilaf to the Caribbean, where it is garnished with butter, almonds and pimiento-stuffed green olives.
-*  ''Roth''(Kashmiri). The Afghan version of the universal West Asian and European sweet egg bread is called ''rot''.<ref name="Crossroads of Cuisine: The Eurasian"/> In Afghanistan, it is traditionally served when a newborn child is forty days old.
+*  ''Roth''(Kashmiri). The Afghan version of the universal West Asian and European sweet egg bread is called ''rot''. In Afghanistan, it is traditionally served when a newborn child is forty days old.
 * ''Sheer Chai'' (Kashmiri). ''Qaimak'' or ''Sheer chai'' is often served at celebrations in Afghanistan to toast good health.
 * ''Yakhein'' (Kashmiri). ''Patates Yahni'' or Greek potato stew is a traditional Greek recipe which falls under the category of ''ladera'', meaning dishes prepared only with olive oil with no addition of other fat. Turkish ''Yahni'' is a beef stew that is great in cold weather. A 19th century cookbook by Mehmet Kamil listed a total of 14 classic ''yakhnis''. ''Yakhni nokhod'' is a traditional Shirazi dish that uses meat, peas, potatoes, onions, salt and turmeric.
 * ''Dam Olav'' (Kashmiri). Bengali ''alur dom'' is lightly spiced and slightly sweet potato curry made with onions, tomatoes and spices.
-== Etiquette of Kashmiri dining ==
+== Etiquette of Kashmiri dining == <!--T:173-->
-Kashmiris are gregarious and like to share.<ref name="Sal: A Feast of Kashmiri Cuisine"/> Language and Food are the two vital parts of the region's identity. 'One who eats properly shall rule the country' it is said. An interesting wedding tradition from Kashmir involves newlyweds making ''roti'' together. While the bride flattens the dough and puts it on the griddle, the groom is responsible for flipping it and making sure it is cooked.Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes. Food connoisseurs can easily taste a single morsel and name the ''waza'' (chef) who cooked it. They can smell an aubergine from four other kinds, and tell you which one is from Kashmir. When filmmaker Vivek Agnihotri wrote a presumptuous tweet proposing the idea of vegetarian wazwan, social media erupted in spontaneous protest. Also, Gordon Ramsay, multi-Michelin-starred chef and television personality, found himself at the receiving end of criticism for his ''Rogan Josh'' by Kashmiris who commented that the cut of the meat and the gravy were wrong.
+<!--T:174-->
+Kashmiris are gregarious and like to share. Language and Food are the two vital parts of the region's identity. 'One who eats properly shall rule the country' it is said. An interesting wedding tradition from Kashmir involves newlyweds making ''roti'' together. While the bride flattens the dough and puts it on the griddle, the groom is responsible for flipping it and making sure it is cooked.Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes. Food connoisseurs can easily taste a single morsel and name the ''waza'' (chef) who cooked it. They can smell an aubergine from four other kinds, and tell you which one is from Kashmir. When filmmaker Vivek Agnihotri wrote a presumptuous tweet proposing the idea of vegetarian wazwan, social media erupted in spontaneous protest. Also, Gordon Ramsay, multi-Michelin-starred chef and television personality, found himself at the receiving end of criticism for his ''Rogan Josh'' by Kashmiris who commented that the cut of the meat and the gravy were wrong.
 [[File:Kashmiri family food.jpg|thumb|A Kashmiri family.]]
-In Kashmir, it is said that food should both taste and look good.<ref name=Kilam1991/> Its aroma must be appetising. Success of a meal lies in its appeal to the eyes, nose and then the tongue. Any event, from a minor one such as receiving a guest in one's home, to a major one such as a circumcision or a wedding, becomes a celebration of preparing, laying out, serving and consuming together the most delicious victuals. Delicacies are passed on to neighbours to be relished and there is no shame in asking for something when the nostrils are tickled and tempted by the mouth-watering smells from a neighbour's kitchen.
+In Kashmir, it is said that food should both taste and look good. Its aroma must be appetising. Success of a meal lies in its appeal to the eyes, nose and then the tongue. Any event, from a minor one such as receiving a guest in one's home, to a major one such as a circumcision or a wedding, becomes a celebration of preparing, laying out, serving and consuming together the most delicious victuals. Delicacies are passed on to neighbours to be relished and there is no shame in asking for something when the nostrils are tickled and tempted by the mouth-watering smells from a neighbour's kitchen.
+<!--T:175-->
 Giant ''dastarkhaans'' (white sheets) are spread on the floor on which the meal is served. However humble or lofty the fare on it, the ''dastarkhaan'' has always been the center of warm hospitality and conviviality. In big Kashmiri dinners, a hundred to five hundred people are usually invited. Since insurgency and the resultant violence and bloodshed, food has come to hold even greater meaning as each meal signifies a celebration of life itself. It is worth mentioning that ''wazas'' (the descendants of Samarkandi cooks), whose shops are located in particular areas of the city of Srinagar, form a significant political group in Kashmir.
+<!--T:176-->
 All dishes are eaten by hand as Kashmiris believe in an intimate relationship with food. Even spiritual and religious old biddies feel no qualms in chomping on ear cartilage or marrow bones long after the meal is done, pulverising everything into a heap on the thali. No one bats an eyelid. Kashmiris consider it disrespectful if one refuses food varieties or an extra helping. They can go great lengths to persuade, swearing to die if you refuse an extra serving!
+<!--T:177-->
 ==Food-related proverbs==
 Kashmiri language is rich in proverbs and idioms. Food-related idioms include:
-*  ''Adyav kheyiv chinih adyav kheyiv taki'' — half the people ate from large dishes, and half from small dishes. A badly arranged dinner.<ref name="Education Society's Press"/>
+<!--T:178-->
+*  ''Adyav kheyiv chinih adyav kheyiv taki'' — half the people ate from large dishes, and half from small dishes. A badly arranged dinner.
 *  ''Akh chhiwyov masah byak hakah rasah'' — one man is intoxicated with the juice of the grape, another with juice of vegetables. Pride dwells in everyone, whether he be rich or poor.
 * ''Akh duda biyi maji kyut toak'' — an uninvited guest wants a (''toak'') plateful for his mother, in addition to himself. ''Toak'' was an earthen plate, in general use in Kashmir in the past. Beggars and some uninvited people pushed themselves in among the guests because of their poverty, or their desire for tasting the delicacies. It is applied where a person is not content with what is willingly offered to him, and demands more.
@@ Line 900: / Line 1,046: @@
 * ''badhshah saab khar ne khewan zab, yeli poras teli kheyi zab'' — usually said for unthankful people who don't accept food.
+<!--T:179-->
 ==Sustainable consumption==
 Kashmiri women would previously take extra mutton dishes by packing them in old newspapers or plastic bags that they would carry. With time, this tradition became popular, and men soon began travelling with the remaining mutton on their ''traem'' (''wazwan'' copper dish). In Kashmir, taking leftover food into carrying bags evolved into a movement, and people also granted it social legitimacy. Even the elites have joined the cause and begun providing specially made carry bags of leftover food. Even the leftover rice is not wasted in marriage functions and is served to animals (dogs, cattle etc.).
+<!--T:180-->
 In Kashmir, a now-abandoned practice would use green Chinar leaves in packaging delicate things like mulberry, butter, mutton and cheese. This would help these easily contaminable items to stay nontoxic till consumption.
+<!--T:181-->
 == See also ==
 * [[Kanger]]
@@ Line 911: / Line 1,060: @@
+<!--T:182-->
 ==Further reading==
 {{Commons category|Cuisine of Kashmir}}
+<!--T:183-->
 {{India topics}}
 {{Cuisine of India}}
@@ Line 920: / Line 1,071: @@
 {{cuisines}}
+<!--T:184-->
 [[Category:Kashmiri cuisine| ]]
 [[Category:Indian cuisine by state or union territory]]
@@ Line 925: / Line 1,077: @@
 [[Category:Culture of Jammu and Kashmir]]
 {{二次利用|date=10 June 2025, at 22:16}}
+</translate>