Cumin/ja: Difference between revisions

Likely originating in [[Central Asia]], [[Western Asia|Southwestern Asia]], or the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], cumin has been in use as a spice for thousands of years. Seeds of wild cumin were excavated in the now-submerged settlement of [[Atlit Yam|Atlit-Yam]], dated to the early 6th millennium BC. Seeds excavated in Syria were dated to the second millennium BC. They have also been reported from several [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] levels of [[ancient Egyptian]] archaeological sites. In the ancient Egyptian civilization, cumin was used as a spice and as a preservative in mummification.

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

Cumin was a significant spice for the [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] in ancient [[Crete]]. [[Ideogram]]s for cumin appear in [[Linear A]] archive tablets documenting [[Minoan palace]] stores during the [[Minoan civilization#Late Minoan|Late Minoan]] period. The ancient Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues in [[Morocco]]. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine. In India, it has been used for millennia as a traditional ingredient in innumerable recipes, and forms the basis of many other spice blends.

Cumin was introduced to the [[Americas]] by Spanish and Portuguese colonists. Black and green cumin are used in [[Persian cuisine]]. Today, the plant is mostly grown in the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Northern Africa]], [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], and [[China]].

== Cultivation and production ==

[[File:4622 - Cumino al mercato di Ortigia, Siracusa - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 20 marzo 2014.jpg|thumb|Ground cumin on display at the market in Ortigia, Syracuse (Italy)]]

[[File:Cumin.JPG|thumb|Commercially packaged whole and ground cumin seeds]]

[[File:Jeera-rice.JPG|thumb|''Jeera'' (cumin) rice, an [[Indian cuisine|Indian dish]]]]

=== Cultivation areas ===

[[India]] is the world's largest producer of cumin, accounting for about 70%. The other major cumin-producing countries are [[Syria]] (13%), [[Turkey]] (5%), [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] (3%), and [[Iran]]. India produced 856,000 tons of cumin seed in the 2020–2021 fiscal year.

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

=== Climatic requirements ===

</div>

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

===Grading===

{{See also|Food grading}}

Cumin is grown from seeds. The seeds need {{cvt|2|to|5|°C}} for emergence, an optimum of {{convert|20|-|30|°C}} is suggested. Cumin is vulnerable to frost damage, especially at flowering and early seed formation stages. Methods to reduce frost damage are spraying with [[sulfuric acid]] (0.1%), irrigating the crop prior to frost incidence, setting up [[windbreak]]s, or creating an early-morning smoke cover. The seedlings of cumin are rather small and their vigor is low. Soaking the seeds for 8 hours before sowing enhances germination. For an optimal plant population, a sowing density of {{convert|12|-|15|kg/ha}} is recommended. Fertile, sandy, loamy soils with good aeration, proper drainage, and high oxygen availability are preferred. The pH optimum of the soil ranges from 6.8 to 8.3. and emergence from heavy soils is rather difficult. Therefore, a proper seedbed preparation (smooth bed) is crucial for the optimal establishment of cumin.

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

Two sowing methods are used for cumin, broadcasting and line sowing. For broadcast sowing, the field is divided into beds and the seeds are uniformly broadcast in this bed. Afterwards, they are covered with soil using a rake. For line sowing, shallow furrows are prepared with hooks at a distance of {{convert|20|to|25|cm|0|abbr=on}}. The seeds are then placed in these furrows and covered with soil. Line sowing offers advantages for intercultural operations such as weeding, hoeing, or spraying. The recommended sowing depth is 1–2&nbsp;cm and the recommended sowing density is around 120 plants per m². The water requirements of cumin are lower than those of many other species. Despite this, cumin is often irrigated after sowing to be sure that enough moisture is available for seedling development. The amount and frequency of irrigation depends on the climate conditions.

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

Pathogens can lead to high reductions in crop yield. Cumin can be attacked by aphids (''[[Myzus persicae]]'') at the flowering stage. They suck the sap of the plant from tender parts and flowers. The plant becomes yellow, the seed formation is reduced (yield reduction), and the quality of the harvested product decreases. Heavily infested plant parts should be removed. Other important pests are the mites (''[[Petrobia latens]]'') which frequently attack the crop. Since the mites mostly feed on young leaves, the infestation is more severe on young inflorescences.

The open canopy of cumin is another problem. Only a low proportion of the incoming light is absorbed. The [[leaf area index]] of cumin is low (about 1.5). This might be a problem because weeds can compete with cumin for essential resources such as water and light and thereby lower yield. The slow growth and the short stature of cumin favors weed competition additionally. Two hoeing and weeding sessions (30 and 60 days after sowing) are needed for the control of weeds. During the first weeding session (30 days after sowing), thinning should be done, as well, to remove excess plants. The use of preplant or pre-emergence [[herbicides]] is very effective in India, but this kind of herbicide application requires soil moisture for a successful weed control.

'''Fertilization recommendations in India'''

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

* {{convert|50|kg|abbr=on}} of triple super phosphate (at planting)

{{Nutritional value

| name = Cumin seed

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

=== Breeding ===

Cumin is a [[diploid]] species with 14 [[chromosome]]s (i.e. 2n = 14). The chromosomes of the different varieties have morphological similarities with no distinct variation in length and volume. Most of the varieties available today are selections. The variabilities of yield and yield components are high. Varieties are developed by sib mating in enclosed chambers or by biotechnology. Cumin is a cross-pollinator, i.e. the breeds are already hybrids. Therefore, methods used for breeding are ''in vitro'' regenerations, DNA technologies, and gene transfers. The ''[[in vitro]]'' cultivation of cumin allows the production of genetically identical plants. The main sources for the explants used ''in vitro'' regenerations are embryos, [[hypocotyl]], shoot internodes, leaves, and [[cotyledon]]s. One goal of cumin breeding is to improve its resistance to biotic (fungal diseases) and abiotic (cold, drought, salinity) stresses. The potential genetic variability for conventional breeding of cumin is limited and research about cumin genetics is scarce.

== Uses ==

Cumin seed is used as a [[spice]] for its distinctive flavor and aroma. Cumin can be found in some cheeses, such as [[Leyden cheese]], and in some traditional breads from France. Cumin can be an ingredient in [[chili powder]] (often [[Tex-Mex]] or Mexican-style) and is found in ''[[achiote]]'' blends, ''[[adobo]]s'', ''[[sofrito]]'', ''[[garam masala]]'', [[curry powder]], and ''[[bahaarat]]'', and is used to flavor numerous commercial food products. In Indian and other South Asian cuisine, it is often combined with [[coriander|coriander seeds]] in a powdered mixture called ''[[Dhana jiru|dhana jeera]]''.

Cumin can be used [[milling (grinding)|ground]] or as whole seeds. It imparts an earthy, warming and aromatic character to food, making it a staple in certain stews and soups, as well as spiced gravies such as curry and chili. It is also used as an ingredient in some pickles and pastries.

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

=== Traditional ===

In India, the seeds are powdered and used in different forms such as ''kashaya'' (decoction), ''arishta'' (fermented decoction), and ''vati'' (tablet/pills), and processed with ''[[ghee]]'' (a semifluid clarified butter). In [[traditional medicine]] practices of several countries, dried cumin seeds are assumed to have medicinal purposes, although there is no scientific evidence for any use as a drug or medicine.

=== Volatiles and essential oil ===

[[Cuminaldehyde]], [[p-Cymene|cymene]], and [[terpenoid]]s are the major volatile components of cumin oil, which is used for a variety of [[flavoring|flavors]], [[perfume]]s, and [[essential oil]]. Cumin oil may be used as an ingredient in some [[cosmetics]].

<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">

=== Aroma ===

Cumin's flavor and warm aroma are due to its [[essential oil]] content, primarily the [[aroma compound]] [[cuminaldehyde]]. Other aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the [[Substitution (chemistry)|substituted]] [[pyrazine]]s, 2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, {{chem name|2-methoxy-3-''sec''-butylpyrazine}}, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Other components include [[Terpinene|γ-terpinene]], [[safranal]], [[p-cymene]], and [[beta-Pinene|β-pinene]].