The word ''coffee'' entered the English language in 1582 via the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] [[Coffee|{{lang|nl|koffie| nocat = yes}}]], borrowed from the [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] [[Kahvesi|{{lang|ota-Latn|kahve| nocat = yes}} ({{lang|ota|قهوه| nocat = yes}})]], borrowed in turn from the [[Arabic]] [[Qahwah|{{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah| nocat = yes}} ({{lang|ar|قَهْوَة| nocat = yes}})]]. Medieval Arab [[lexicographers]] traditionally held that the [[etymology]] of {{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}} meant '[[wine]]', given its distinctly dark color, and derived from the verb {{lang|ar-Latn|qahiya}} ({{lang|ar|قَهِيَ}}), '[[Anorectic|to have no appetite]]'. The word {{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}} most likely meant 'dark', referring to the brew or the bean. Semitic languages had the root ''qhh'', "dark color", which became a natural designation for the beverage. There is no evidence that the word {{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}} was named after the Ethiopian province of [[Kaffa Province|Kaffa]] (a part of where coffee originates from: [[Abyssinia]]), or any significant authority stating the opposite, or that it is traced to the Arabic {{lang|ar-Latn|quwwa}} ("power").
「コーヒー」を意味する別の言葉で、[[:en:Languages of Ethiopia|エチオピアの言語]]で広く使われているものに、''buna''、''bun''、''būn''、または''buni''(言語による)がある。この語群は、アラビア語の「{{lang|ar-Latn|bunn}} ({{lang|ar|بن}})」、特にコーヒー豆を意味する言葉に由来するとされることが多いが、[[:en:Cushitic languages|クシ語派]]に固有の起源がある可能性も提案されている。
A different term for 'coffee', widespread in [[languages of Ethiopia]], is ''buna'', ''bun'', ''būn'' or ''buni'' (depending on the language). Most often the word group has been assumed to originate from Arabic {{lang|ar-Latn|bunn}} ({{lang|ar|بن}}) meaning specifically the coffee bean, but indigenous origin in [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] has been proposed as a possibility as well.
The Ottomans' dominant position in the trade in coffee is thought to have influenced several other European languages as well, inspiring "[[caffè]]" in Italian and "''[[café]]''" in French. These terms, along with the Dutch [[Coffee|{{lang|nl|koffie| nocat = yes}}]] emerged at roughly the same time, reflecting the beverage's newfound spread across Europe.
The terms ''[[coffee pot]]'' and ''[[coffee break]]'' originated in 1705 and 1952 respectively.
Studies of [[genetic diversity]] have been performed on ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' varieties, which were found to be of low diversity but with retention of some residual heterozygosity from ancestral materials, and closely related diploid species ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' and ''[[Coffea liberica|C. liberica]]''; however, no direct evidence has ever been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the local people might have used it as a stimulant or known about it there earlier than the seventeenth century. The original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from [[Harar]], and the native population is thought to be derived from Ethiopia with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.
[[File:Bellin - Plan de la Ville de Moka.png|thumb|18th century French plan of Mocha, Yemen. The Somali, Jewish and European quarters are located outside the citadel. The Dutch, English, Turkish and French trading posts are inside the city walls.]]
[[File:Bedouincoffeecup.jpg|thumb|Syrian [[Bedouin]] from a beehive village in [[Aleppo]], Syria, sipping the traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930]]
[[File:Palestinian women grinding coffee beans.jpg|thumb|[[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] women grinding coffee, 1905]]
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==歴史{{Anchor|History}}==
The earliest mention of coffee noted by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylvestre Dufour is a reference to ''bunchum'' in the works of the 10th century CE [[Persian people|Persian]] physician [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes]] in the West. More definite information on the coffee tree and preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates back to the late 15th century. The Sufi Imam Muhammad Ibn Said al-[[At Turbah|Dhabhani]] is known to have imported goods from Ethiopia to [[Yemen]]. Coffee was first exported out of Ethiopia to Yemen by Somali merchants from [[Berbera]] and [[Zeila]], which was procured from [[Harar]] and the Abyssinian interior. According to Captain Haines, who was the colonial administrator of [[Aden]] (1839–1854), [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] historically imported up to two-thirds of their coffee from Berbera-based merchants before the coffee trade of Mocha was captured by British-controlled Aden in the 19th century. Thereafter, much of the Ethiopian coffee was exported to Aden via Berbera.
[[File:Bellin - Plan de la Ville de Moka.png|thumb|18世紀のフランスによる[[:en:Mocha, Yemen|イエメン、モカ]]の地図。ソマリ人、ユダヤ人、ヨーロッパ人居住区は城塞の外に位置する。オランダ、イギリス、トルコ、フランスの交易拠点は城壁の内側にある。]]
[[File:Palestinian women grinding coffee beans.jpg|thumb|1905年、[[:en:Palestinian people|パレスチナ人]]の女性がコーヒー豆を挽いている様子]]
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文学的なコーヒー商人フィリップ・シルヴェストル・デュフールが記したコーヒーに関する最も初期の記述は、10世紀の[[:en:Persian people|ペルシア人]]医師[[:en:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|ムハンマド・イブン・ザカリヤ・アル=ラージー(西洋ではラゼスとして知られる)]]の著作における「''bunchum''」への言及である。焙煎したコーヒー豆から飲み物を調製するコーヒーの木と調製に関するより明確な情報は、15世紀後半に遡る。スーフィーのイマーム、ムハンマド・イブン・サイード・アル=[[:en:At Turbah|ダバニ]]がエチオピアから[[:en:Yemen|イエメン]]へ商品を輸入したことで知られている。コーヒーは、[[:en:Berbera|ベルベラ]]と[[:en:Zeila|ゼイラ]]のソマリ人商人が[[:en:Harar|ハラル]]やアビシニア内陸部から調達したものを、エチオピアからイエメンへ初めて輸出した。[[:en:Aden|アデン]]の植民地行政官であったヘインズ大尉(1839年-1854年)によると、[[:en:Mocha, Yemen|モカ]]は歴史的に、19世紀にイギリスが支配するアデンがモカのコーヒー貿易を掌握するまで、コーヒーの最大3分の2をベルベラを拠点とする商人から輸入していた。その後、エチオピアのコーヒーの多くはベルベラ経由でアデンに輸出されたである。
{{cquote|Berbera not only supplies Aden with horned cattle and sheep to a very large extent, but the trade between Africa and Aden is steadily increasing greatly every year. In the article of coffee alone there is considerable export, and 'Berbera' coffee stands in the Bombay market now before Mocha. The coffee shipped at Berbera comes from far in the interior from Hurrar, Abyssinia, and Kaffa. It will be to the advantage of all that the trade should come to Aden through one port, and Berbera is the only place on the coast there that has a protected port, where vessels can lie in smooth water.
コーヒーに関する初期の最も重要な著述家の一人が、1587年にコーヒーの歴史と法的な論争をたどる著作『''Umdat al Safwa fi hill al-qahwa''(عمدة الصفوة في حل القهوة)』を編纂した[[:en:Abd al-Qadir al-Jaziri|アブド・アル=カーディル・アル=ジャズィーリー]]である。この著作は、コーヒーが「[[:en:Arabia Felix|幸福のアラビア]]」(現在の[[:en:Yemen|イエメン]])から北方の[[:en:Mecca|メッカ]]や[[:en:Medina|メディナ]]、そしてさらに大きな都市である[[:en:Cairo|カイロ]]、[[:en:Damascus|ダマスカス]]、[[:en:Baghdad|バグダッド]]、[[:en:Constantinople|コンスタンティノープル]]へと広まった経緯をたどっている。彼は、[[:en:Aden|アデン]]の[[:en:mufti|ムフティ]]である[[:en:Sheikh|シャイフ]]、ジャマール・アッディーン・アル=ダバーニ(1470年没)が、最初にコーヒーの使用を採用した(およそ1454年)と報告している。
One of the most important of the early writers on coffee was [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaziri]], who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee entitled ''Umdat al Safwa fi hill al-qahwa'' عمدة الصفوة في حل القهوة, tracing the spread of coffee from ''Arabia Felix'' (present-day Yemen) northward to [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]], and then to the larger cities of [[Cairo]], [[Damascus]], [[Baghdad]], and [[Constantinople]]. He reported that one [[Sheikh]], Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani (d. 1470), [[mufti]] of Aden, was the first to adopt the use of coffee (circa 1454).
{{blockquote|He found that among its properties was that it drove away fatigue and lethargy, and brought to the body a certain sprightliness and vigour.}}
アル=ジャズィーリーの写本は、ヨーロッパにおけるコーヒーの歴史に関しても非常に興味深い。その写本の一部はフランス王立図書館に所蔵され、[[:en:Antoine Galland|アントワーヌ・ガラン]]によって『''De l'origine et du progrès du café''』(1699年)として部分的に翻訳されたである。
Al-Jaziri's manuscript work is of considerable interest with regard to the history of coffee in Europe as well. A copy reached the French royal library, where it was translated in part by [[Antoine Galland]] as ''De l'origine et du progrès du café'' (1699).
Sufis in Yemen used the beverage as an aid to concentration and as a kind of spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God. Sufis used it to keep themselves alert during their nighttime devotions. By 1414, the plant was known in Mecca, and in the early 1500s was spreading to the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mameluke Sultanate]] of Egypt and North Africa from the Yemeni port of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]]. Associated with [[Sufism]], a myriad of coffee houses popped up in Cairo (Egypt) around the religious [[Al-Azhar University|University of the Azhar]]. These coffee houses also opened in Syria, especially in the cosmopolitan city of Aleppo, and then in Constantinople, the capital of the [[Ottoman Empire]], in 1554. Coffee was also noted in [[Aleppo]] by the German physician botanist [[Leonhard Rauwolf]], the first European to mention it, as ''chaube'', in 1573; Rauwolf was closely followed by descriptions from other European travellers.
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1511年、[[:en:Mecca|メッカ]]の神学法廷で保守的な正統派イマームによって、その覚醒作用を理由に禁止された。しかし、これらの禁止令は1524年に[[:en:Ottoman Dynasty|オスマン・トルコ]]の[[:en:Sultan|スルタン]][[:en:Suleiman the Magnificent|スレイマン1世]]の命令によって覆され、[[:en:Grand Mufti|大ムフティ]][[:en:Mehmet Ebussuud el-İmadi|メフメト・エブスースード・エル=イマーディ]]がコーヒーの摂取を許可する[[:en:fatwa|ファトワー]]を発令した。カイロでは1532年に同様の禁止令が敷かれ、コーヒーハウスとコーヒー豆を貯蔵する倉庫が略奪された。16世紀の間には、すでに中東の他の地域、[[:en:Safavid Empire|サファヴィー朝]]、そして[[:en:Ottoman Empire|オスマン帝国]]にまで到達していた。中東からコーヒーを飲む習慣はイタリア、そしてヨーロッパの他の地域へと広がり、コーヒーの木はオランダ人によって[[:en:East Indies|東インド]]とアメリカ大陸に運ばれたである。
In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulating effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in [[Mecca]]. However, these bans were to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the [[Ottoman Dynasty|Ottoman Turkish]] [[Sultan]] [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]], with [[Grand Mufti]] [[Mehmet Ebussuud el-İmadi]] issuing a ''[[fatwa]]'' allowing the consumption of coffee. In Cairo a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked. During the 16th century, it had already reached the rest of the Middle East, the [[Safavid Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the [[East Indies]] and to the Americas.
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===エチオピアにおけるコーヒーの規制===
=== Coffee regulation in Ethiopia ===
コーヒーは18世紀以前のある時期に[[:en:Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|エチオピア正教会]]によって禁止された。しかし、19世紀後半になると、エチオピア人のコーヒー飲用に対する態度が軟化し、1880年から1886年の間にその消費が急速に広まった。[[:en:Richard Pankhurst (academic)|リチャード・パンクハースト]]によると、「これは主に、自らもコーヒーを飲んだ[[:en:Ethiopian Empire|皇帝]][[:en:Menelik II of Ethiopia|メネリク2世]]と、コーヒーがムスリムの飲み物であるという聖職者の信仰を払拭するために多大な貢献をした[[:en:Abuna|アブナ]][[:en:Abuna Mattheos X|マテウォス]]の功績によるものであった。」
Coffee was banned by the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] sometime before the 18th century. However, in the second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886; according to [[Richard Pankhurst (academic)|Richard Pankhurst]], "this was largely due to [[Ethiopian Empire|Emperor]] [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Menelik]], who himself drank it, and to [[Abuna]] [[Abuna Mattheos X|Matewos]] who did much to dispel the belief of the clergy that it was a Muslim drink."
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===イスラムにおけるコーヒー===
=== Coffee in Islam ===
初期のイスラム医学と科学の実践者たちは、コーヒーの効果が[[hashish/ja|ハシシ]]やアルコールのようなものであるという考えに反論し、代わりにアルコールやハシシの誘惑から身を守りながら精神を刺激するこの飲み物の利点を主張した。メッカ、イエメン、カイロのコーヒーハウスは爆発的な人気を博し始め、やがてイスラム帝国の広大な都市における公共生活の中心となる。コーヒーハウスは時に、イスラムの生活、芸術、思想の中心であった[[:en:House of Wisdom|バイト・アル=ヒクマ]]やマドラサのように機能した。[[:en:Folger Shakespeare Library|フォルジャー・シェイクスピア図書館]]のネハ・ヴェラミは、「これらのコーヒーハウスの歴史は、公共圏の出現、近世イスラム帝国の政治生活へのより広範な人々の参加、そして西洋の傍観者による『東洋』社会への専制政治の疑惑の空虚さという、3つの関連する洞察を提供する」と述べている。コーヒーは、その後数世紀にわたってイスラム文化に深く根付いたのである。
Early practitioners of Islamic medicine and science fought against the notion that the effect of coffee was like that of [[hashish]] or alcohol, and instead argued the benefits of the drink, which would stimulate the mind while protecting against the allure of alcohol and hashish. Coffeehouses in Mecca, Yemen, and Cairo began to explode in popularity, and they would soon become centers of public life within the sprawling cities of the Islamic Empires. The coffeehouses sometimes acted like the [[House of Wisdom|bayt al-Hakima]] or madrasas, which were centers of Islamic life, arts, and thinking. Neha Verami, from the [[Folger Shakespeare Library]], said that "the history of these coffeehouses offers three connected insights: the emergence of the public sphere, the participation of larger sections of the population in the political lives of the early modern Islamic empires, and the hollowness of the allegations of despotism mounted on 'Oriental' societies by Western onlookers". Coffee became an ingrained piece of Islamic culture for the centuries to come.
Contrary to its role in recent centuries, coffee became a subject of debate for some. When the ''fatwa'' came into effect in 1532–1533, coffee and its consumption was established as [[haram]]''.'' This decision most likely came from the idea that like alcohol, coffee had an effect on cognition, albeit different and milder. It is possible that the regulation was implemented in an attempt to limit consumption of other recreational substances such as tobacco and alcohol in the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. Drinking coffee in public places was also scorned. Not only was public consumption seen as taboo, but people would often drink from a communal bowl in a fashion similar to drinking wine. This most likely contributed to the disdain of coffee because its similar style of consumption once again related it to alcohol.
An effort was made to stunt coffee's growing popularity. While Suleiman I was still in power, taxes were imposed in an attempt to prevent both bureaucrats and those who were unemployed from consuming coffee. Further attempts occurred during both the reigns of Sultan Selim II in 1567 as well as Sultan Murad III in 1583 whenever those of more modest means began to drink coffee, which included professions ranging from craftsmen to shopkeepers to local soldiers. Despite the attempt to bar people from drinking coffee, the fatwa ultimately failed as coffee did not compare to the effects of alcohol. Since coffee was also seen as a mind-altering substance like alcohol meant that the prohibition was more of a misunderstanding of the substance or an attempt to control consumption based on Orthodox beliefs. This back-and-forth scenario falls within the debate of whether coffee is ''[[halal]]'' or ''haram''. While it certainly proved controversial, coffee continued to be sought out by many.
Within the Ottoman Empire, shops known as ''taḥmīskhāne'' in Ottoman Turkish were used to create coffee using the traditional method of roasting and crushing coffee beans in mortars. Coffee houses located in areas such as Mecca were visited by those from all over: Muslims from mosques, those coming from afar to trade and sell, or simple travelers making their way through.
Despite the controversy over coffee, it was one of the keys to the economy around the [[Red Sea]] from the mid-15th century to the mid-17th century. In the past, the [[Oromo people|Oromo tribe]] in Ethiopia created foods from coffee plants such as ''[[bunna qela]]'', made of butter, salt, and roasted beans. Such a concoction would be used as a basis and altered over time. A more modern beverage known as ''[[qishr]]'' in Arabic is made of recycled dried cherry skins that would have normally been discarded after being used to create the beverage ''buna''. These cherry skins would then be used to brew a sort of fruit tea. ''Qishr'' or ''cascara'' in Spanish is sold by coffee farmers even today.
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===伝説的な説明===
=== Legendary accounts ===
コーヒー消費の起源については、いくつかの伝説的な説明が存在する。ある伝説によると、[[:en:Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa王国]]の今日の[[:en:Kafficho people|カフィチョ族]]の祖先が、コーヒー植物の活力を与える効果を最初に認識したとされる。ある説では、9世紀のエチオピアの[[:en:goatherd|ヤギ飼い]]である[[:en:Kaldi|カルディ]]が、自分の群れが特定の低木の明るい赤い実をかじったときに活力を与える効果があることに気づき、自らその実を噛んでみた。彼の高揚感は、その実を近くの修道院の[[:en:Monk|修道士]]に持って行かせた。しかし、その修道士はそれらの使用を認めず、火に投げ入れたところ、魅力的な香りが立ち上り、他の修道士たちが調べてみるためにやってきた。焙煎された豆はすぐに燃えさしから掻き出され、挽かれ、熱湯に溶かされ、世界初のコーヒーが誕生した。この話は、1671年にローマに拠点を置く[[:en:Maronite|マロン派]]のファウストゥス・ナイロンの『''De Saluberrima potione Cahue seu Cafe nuncupata Discurscus''』が出版されるまで文字で記述されたことが知られておらず、またそれが起こったとされる時期から800年後であるため、この話は多分に偽りである可能性が高い。
There are several legendary accounts of the origin of the consumption of coffee. According to one legend, ancestors of today's [[Kafficho people]] in the [[Kingdom of Kaffa]] were the first to recognize the energizing effect of the coffee plant. One account involves a 9th-century Ethiopian [[goatherd]]er, [[Kaldi]], who, noticing the energizing effects when his flock nibbled on the bright red berries of a certain bush, chewed on the fruit himself. His exhilaration prompted him to bring the berries to a monk in a nearby monastery. But the monk disapproved of their use and threw them into the fire, from which an enticing aroma billowed, causing other monks to come and investigate. The roasted beans were quickly raked from the embers, ground up, and dissolved in hot water, yielding the world's first cup of coffee. Since this story is not known to have appeared in writing before Rome-based [[Maronite]] Faustus Nairon's ''De Saluberrima potione Cahue seu Cafe nuncupata Discurscus'' in 1671, 800 years after it was supposed to have taken place, it is highly likely to be apocryphal.
Another account involves the 13th century Moroccan Sufi mystic Ghothul Akbar Nooruddin [[Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili]]. When traveling in Ethiopia, the legend goes, he observed birds of unusual vitality feeding on berries, and, upon trying the berries, experienced the same vitality. Yet another attributes the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Abu al-Hasan ash-Shadhili's disciple, Omar. According to the ancient chronicle (preserved in the Abd-Al-Kadir manuscript), Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was once banished from Mecca to a desert cave near the Ousab City. Starving, Omar chewed berries from nearby shrubbery, but found them to be too bitter. He tried roasting the beans to improve the flavor, but they became too hard. He then tried boiling them to soften the bean, which resulted in a fragrant brown liquid. After drinking the liquid, Omar was revived and survived for days. As stories of this "miracle drug" reached Mecca, Omar was asked to return and was eventually made a saint.
'''Nepenthe''' {{IPAc-en|n|ᵻ|ˈ|p|ɛ|n|θ|i}} ({{langx|grc|νηπενθές}}, {{Transliteration|grc|nēpenthés}}) is possibly derived from a misunderstanding of coffee in the Homeric cycle. It is mentioned as originating in [[Egypt]]. The word ''{{lang|grc-Latn|nepenthe}}'' first appears in the fourth book of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'':
Figuratively, nepenthe means "that which chases away sorrow". Literally it means 'not-sorrow' or 'anti-sorrow': {{lang|grc|νη-}}, {{Transliteration|grc|nē-}}, i.e. "not" ([[privative]] [[prefix]]), and {{lang|grc|πενθές}}, from {{lang|grc|πένθος}}, {{Transliteration|grc|pénthos}}, i.e. "grief, sorrow, or mourning".
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''[[:en:Odyssey|オデュッセイ]]''において、νηπενθές φάρμακον: {{Transliteration|grc|nēpenthés phármakon}}(すなわち[[:en:antidepressant|抗悲しみ薬]])は、高貴なエジプト人トン(Thon)の妻[[:en:Polydamna|ポリダムナ]]が[[:en:Helen of Troy|ヘレネ]]に与えた魔法の[[potion/ja|薬]]である。
In the ''[[Odyssey]]'', νηπενθές φάρμακον : {{Transliteration|grc|nēpenthés phármakon}} (i.e. an [[antidepressant|anti-sorrow drug]]) is a magical [[potion]] given to [[Helen of Troy|Helen]] by [[Polydamna]], the wife of the noble Egyptian Thon,
Coffee was originally consumed in the Islamic world and was directly related to religious practices. For example, coffee helped its consumers fast in the day and stay awake at night, during the Muslim celebration of Ramadan.{{blockquote|It [coffee] became associated with Muhammad's birthday. Indeed, various legends ascribed coffee's origins to Muhammad, who, through the archangel Gabriel, brought it to man to replace the wine which Islam forbade.}}
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==ヨーロッパ{{Anchor|Europe}}==
==Europe==
[[File:Mocha1692.jpg|thumb|1692年のモカを描いたオランダの版画]]
[[File:Mocha1692.jpg|thumb|Dutch engraving of Mocha in 1692]]
コーヒーがヨーロッパに初めて伝えられたのは[[:en:Hungary|ハンガリー]]で、[[:en:1526|1526年]]の[[:en:Battle of Mohács|モハーチの戦い]]でトルコ軍がハンガリーに侵攻した時である。それから1年以内に、[[:en:Siege of Vienna (1529)|ウィーン包囲 (1529年)]]でヨーロッパ軍と戦った同じトルコ人によって、コーヒーは[[:en:Vienna|ウィーン]]に到達した。16世紀後半には、コーヒーは奴隷制度を通じて[[:en:Malta|マルタ島]]に導入された。1565年の[[:en:Great Siege of Malta|マルタ大包囲戦]]の年に、聖ヨハネ騎士団によって投獄されたトルコ系ムスリムの奴隷たちが、彼らの伝統的な飲料を作るために使われた。[[:en:Domenico Magri|ドメニコ・マーグリ]]は自身の著作『[[Wikipedia:Virtu del Kafé|Virtu del Kafé]]』の中で、「この調合の最も熟練した作り手であるトルコ人」と述べている。また、ドイツの旅行者グスタフ・ゾンマーフェルトは1663年にこう記している。
Coffee was first introduced to Europe in [[Hungary]] when the Turks invaded Hungary at the [[Battle of Mohács]] in [[1526]]. Within a year, coffee had reached [[Vienna]] by the same Turks who fought the Europeans at the [[Siege of Vienna (1529)]]. Later in the 16th century, coffee was introduced on the island of [[Malta]] through slavery. Turkish Muslim slaves had been imprisoned by the [[Knights of St John]] in 1565—the year of the [[Great Siege of Malta]], and they used them to make their traditional beverage. [[Domenico Magri]] mentioned in his work [[Virtu del Kafé]], "Turks, most skillful makers of this concoction." Also, the German traveler Gustav Sommerfeldt in 1663 wrote
"the ability and industriousness with which the Turkish prisoners earn some money, especially by preparing coffee, a powder resembling snuff tobacco, with water and sugar." Coffee was a popular beverage in Maltese high society—many coffee shops opened.
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ヨーロッパの文献におけるコーヒーの最初の言及は、シャルル・ド・レクリューズの1575年の著書『{{Lang|la|Aromatum et simplicium aliquot medica-mentorum apud Indos nascientum historia}}』である。彼は[[:en:Padua|パドヴァ]]のアルフォンシウパンシウスからコーヒーについて学んだ。16世紀後半にサファヴィー朝とオスマン帝国を通過したイギリス人は、コーヒーが「消化を助け、精神を活気づけ、血液を浄化するのに非常に良い」と記している。
The first mention of coffee in a European text is in Charles de l'Ecluse's {{Lang|la|Aromatum et simplicium aliquot medica-mentorum apud Indos nascientum historia}} from 1575. He learnt of coffee from Alphoncius Pansius in [[Padua]]. Englishmen passing through Safavid and the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century noted that coffee was "very good to help digestion, to quicken the spirits, and to cleanse the blood.”
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[[:en:Republic of Venice|ヴェネツィア共和国]]と北アフリカ、エジプト、そして「東方」の人々との活発な貿易は、コーヒーを含む多種多様なアフリカの品々をこの主要なヨーロッパの港にもたらした。ヴェネツィアの商人たちは[[:en:Venice|ヴェネツィア]]の富裕層にコーヒーを飲む習慣を紹介し、その飲料に高額な料金を請求した。このようにして、コーヒーはヨーロッパ本土に導入された。1591年、ヴェネツィアの植物学者・医師である[[:en:Prospero Alpini|プロスペロ・アルピーニ]]が、ヨーロッパで初めてコーヒー植物の記述を出版した。オスマン帝国とマルタを除くヨーロッパで最初の[[:en:coffee house|コーヒーハウス]]は1645年にヴェネツィアで開店した。
The vibrant trade between the [[Republic of Venice]] and the people of North Africa, Egypt, and ''the East'' brought a large variety of African goods, including coffee, to this leading European port. Venetian merchants introduced coffee-drinking to the wealthy in [[Venice]], charging them heavily for the beverage. In this way, coffee was introduced to the mainland of Europe. In 1591 Venetian botanist-physician [[Prospero Alpini]] became the first to publish a description of the coffee plant in Europe. The first European [[coffee house]] apart from those in the Ottoman Empire and in Malta was opened in Venice in 1645.
The first route of travel for coffee was through the massive, sprawling Ottoman Empire that allowed transportation of goods such as coffee to make their way well into Europe, and the second route of travel was from the port of Mocha in Yemen, where the East India Trading Co. bought coffee in masses and transported it back to mainland Europe. Coffee became a crucial part of the culture in most of Europe, with queens, kings, and the general public all becoming extensively enthralled with the product. Rather it be through the term 'coffee arabica' or the transportation of the drink, the passage of coffee into the Western world greatly resembles that of the scientific knowledge and discoveries passed on by the Islamicate Empires.
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===オーストリア===
===Austria===
[[File:Cafe Braeunerhof Wien 2004.jpg|thumb|right|[[:en:Vienna|ウィーン]]と[[:en:Trieste|トリエステ]]の間のコーヒーハウス文化:コーヒー、新聞、水のグラス、大理石のテーブルトップ]]
[[File:Cafe Braeunerhof Wien 2004.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee house culture between [[Vienna]] and [[Trieste]]: the coffee, the newspaper, the glass of water and the marble tabletop]]
オーストリアで最初のコーヒーハウスは、1683年の[[:en:Battle of Vienna|ウィーンの戦い]]後、トルコ軍を破って得た戦利品を使って[[:en:Vienna|ウィーン]]に開店した。コーヒー豆を受け取った将校である[[:en:Poland|ポーランド]]軍の将校[[:en:Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki|イェジ・フランツィシェク・クルチツキ]](ゲオルグ・フランツ・コルシツキー)は、コーヒーハウスを開店し、コーヒーに砂糖と牛乳を加える習慣を広めるのに貢献した。''[[:en:Wiener Melange|メランジェ]]''は典型的なウィーンコーヒーで、温かい泡立てた牛乳と混ぜて提供され、通常は水のグラスが添えられる。
The first coffeehouse in Austria opened in [[Vienna]] in 1683 after the [[Battle of Vienna]], by using supplies from the spoils obtained after defeating the Turks. The officer who received the coffee beans, [[Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki]] (Georg Franz Kolschitzky), a [[Poland|Polish]] military officer, opened a coffee house and helped popularize the custom of adding sugar and milk to the coffee. ''[[Wiener Melange|Melange]]'' is the typical Viennese coffee, which comes mixed with hot foamed milk, and is usually served with a glass of water.
A distinct [[Viennese coffee house]] culture developed in Vienna in the 19th century and then spread throughout [[Central Europe]]. Scientists, artists, intellectuals, bon vivants and their financiers met in this special microcosm of the Viennese coffee houses of the [[Habsburg Empire]]. World-famous personalities such as [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[James Joyce]] and [[Egon Schiele]] were inspired in the Viennese coffee house. In this diverse coffee house culture of the multicultural [[Habsburg]] Empire, different types of coffee preparation also developed. This is how the world-famous [[cappuccino]] from the Viennese Kapuziner coffee developed over the Italian-speaking parts of the northern Italian empire.
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===イギリス===
===United Kingdom===
[[File:The Vertue of the COFFEE Drink.jpg|thumb|1652年のロンドン、セント・マイケルズ・アレーでコーヒーを宣伝する手書きのチラシ]]
[[File:The Vertue of the COFFEE Drink.jpg|thumb|A 1652 handbill advertising coffee for sale in St. Michael's Alley, London]]
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イングランドで最初の[[:en:coffeehouse|コーヒーハウス]]は、1650年に[[:en:Oxford|オックスフォード]]で開店した。ロンドンで最初の[[:en:coffeehouse|コーヒーハウス]]は、[[:en:Cornhill, London|コーンヒル]]のセント・マイケルズ・アレーに開店した。経営者はトルコ商品を扱う貿易商ダニエル・エドワーズの召使いであった[[:en:Pasqua Rosée|パスクア・ロゼー]]である。エドワーズがコーヒーを輸入し、ロゼーが店の設立を手伝った。コーヒーは17世紀に[[:en:British East India Company|イギリス東インド会社]]と[[:en:Dutch East India Company|オランダ東インド会社]]を通じても輸入された。オックスフォードの[[:en:Queen's Lane Coffee House|クイーンズ・レーン・コーヒーハウス]]は1654年に設立され、今日でも存在している。1675年までに、イングランド全土に3,000以上のコーヒーハウスがあったが、1660年代から1670年代にかけてコーヒーハウスの進歩的な動きには多くの混乱があった。[[:en:Enlightenment|啓蒙時代]]には、これらの初期のイギリスのコーヒーハウスは、国民の間で深い宗教的および政治的議論のための集会場所として利用された。これは、冷静な議論ができる珍しい機会であったためである。この慣行は非常に一般的で、潜在的に[[:en:subversion|反体制的]]になったため、[[:en:Charles II of England|チャールズ2世]]は1670年代にコーヒーハウスを弾圧しようと試みた。
The first [[coffeehouse]] in England was opened in Oxford in 1650. The first [[coffeehouse]] in London opened in St. Michael's Alley in [[Cornhill, London]]. The proprietor was [[Pasqua Rosée]], the servant of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assisted Rosée in setting up the establishment. Coffee was also brought in through the [[British East India Company]] and the [[Dutch East India Company]] in the 17th century. Oxford's [[Queen's Lane Coffee House]], established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses throughout England, but there were many disruptions in the progressive movement of coffeehouses between the 1660s and 1670s. During the enlightenment, these early English coffee houses became gathering places used for deep religious and political discussions among the populace, since it was a rare opportunity for sober discussion. This practice became so common, and potentially subversive, that [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] made an attempt to crush coffee houses in 1670s.
The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, for example, women frequented them in Germany, but it appears to have been commonplace elsewhere in Europe, including in England.
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この時代、多くの人々はコーヒーに薬効があると信じていた。著名で高名な医師たちは、しばしばコーヒーを薬用として推奨し、神経障害の治療薬として処方することもあった。1661年に「M.P.」という人物によって書かれた「A character of coffee and coffee-houses」と題された[[:en:tract (literature)|小冊子]]には、これらの認識されていた効能がいくつか挙げられている。
Many in this period believed coffee to have medicinal properties. Renowned and eminent physicians often recommended coffee for medicinal purposes and some prescribed it as a cure for nervous disorders. A 1661 [[tract (literature)|tract]] entitled "A character of coffee and coffee-houses", written by one "M.P.", lists some of these perceived benefits:
{{blockquote|'Tis extolled for drying up the Crudities of the Stomack, and for expelling Fumes out of the Head. Excellent Berry! which can cleanse the English-man's Stomak of Flegm, and expel Giddinesse out of his Head.}}
{{blockquote|the Excessive Use of that Newfangled, Abominable, Heathenish Liquor called ''COFFEE'' ...has...''Eunucht'' our Husbands, and Crippled our more kind ''Gallants'', that they are become as ''Impotent'', as Age.}}
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===フランス===
===France===
[[:en:Antoine Galland|アントワーヌ・ガラン]](1646年-1715年)は、前述の自身の翻訳で、コーヒー、[[tea/ja|茶]]、[[chocolate/ja|チョコレート]]とイスラム教徒との関連について述べている。「我々は、コーヒー、[[sugar/ja|砂糖]]、茶、チョコレートを彼らの著作を通じて現代世界に紹介してくれたこれらの偉大な[アラブの]医師たちに負っている」。しかし、この最後(チョコレート)に関しては、スペイン人によってアメリカ大陸からヨーロッパにもたらされたものであったため、彼は完全に誤っていた。ガランは、[[:en:Louis XIV of France|フランス国王ルイ14世]]の通訳であるド・ラ・クロワ氏から、コーヒーは東方を旅した[[:en:Jean de Thévenot|テヴノー氏]]によってパリにもたらされたと知らされたと報告している。1657年に彼がパリに戻った際、テヴノーは豆の一部を友人たちに与え、その中にはド・ラ・クロワもいた。
[[Antoine Galland]] (1646–1715) in his aforementioned translation described the Muslim association with coffee, [[tea]] and [[chocolate]]: "We are indebted to these great [Arab] physicians for introducing coffee to the modern world through their writings, as well as [[sugar]], tea, and chocolate." Regarding this last, he was quite mistaken however, as chocolate had been brought to Europe from the Americas by the Spanish. Galland reported that he was informed by Mr. de la Croix, the interpreter of [[Louis XIV of France|King Louis XIV]] of France, that coffee was brought to Paris by a certain [[Jean de Thévenot|Mr. Thevenot]], who had travelled through the East. On his return to that city in 1657, Thevenot gave some of the beans to his friends, one of whom was de la Croix.
In 1669, [[Soleiman Agha]], Ambassador from Sultan [[Mehmed IV]], arrived in Paris with his entourage bringing with him a large quantity of coffee beans. Not only did they provide their French and European guests with coffee to drink, but they also donated some beans to the royal court. Between July 1669 and May 1670, the Ambassador managed to firmly establish the custom of drinking coffee among Parisians.
In Germany, coffeehouses were first established in North Sea ports, including [[Wuppertal-Ronsdorf]] (1673) and [[Hamburg]] (1677). Initially, this new beverage was written in the English form ''coffee'', but during the 1700s the Germans gradually adopted the French word ''café'', then slowly changed the spelling to ''Kaffee'', which is the present word. In the 18th century the popularity of coffee gradually spread around the German lands and was taken up by the ruling classes. Coffee was served at the court of the [[Great Elector]], Frederick William of Brandenburg, as early as 1675, but [[Berlin]]'s first public coffee house did not open until 1721.
[[File:Zimmermannsches Caffeehaus.jpg|thumb|upright|Café Zimmermann, Leipzig (engraving by Johann Georg Schreiber, 1732)]]
[[:en:Leipzig|ライプツィヒ]]の[[:en:St. Thomas Church (Leipzig)|聖トーマス教会]]のカントルであった作曲家[[:en:Johann Sebastian Bach|ヨハン・ゼバスティアン・バッハ]]は、1723年から1750年にかけて地元の[[:en:Café Zimmermann|ツィンマーマン・カフェ]]で音楽アンサンブルを指揮した。1732年から1735年のいずれかの時期に、彼は世俗カンタータ「[[:en:Coffee Cantata|コーヒー・カンタータ]]」''Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht''([[Wikipedia:BWV 211|BWV 211]])を作曲した。このカンタータでは、若い女性リーシェンが、当時流行の最先端であったコーヒーを飲むことへの彼女の傾倒を、反対する父親に受け入れるよう懇願する。台本には次のような歌詞が含まれている。
Composer [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], who was cantor of St. Thomas Church in [[Leipzig]], in 1723–1750, conducted a musical ensemble at the local [[Café Zimmermann]]. Sometime in 1732–1735 he composed the secular "[[Coffee Cantata]]" ''Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht'' ([[BWV 211]]), in which a young woman, Lieschen, pleads with her disapproving father to accept her devotion to drinking coffee, then a newfangled fashion. The libretto includes such lines as:
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<blockquote><poem>''Ei! wie schmeckt der Coffee süße,''
<blockquote><poem>''Ei! wie schmeckt der Coffee süße,''
''Lieblicher als tausend Küsse,''
''Lieblicher als tausend Küsse,''
Line 199:
Line 125:
:''Und wenn jemand mich will laben,''
:''Und wenn jemand mich will laben,''
:''Ach, so schenkt mir Coffee ein!''
:''Ach, so schenkt mir Coffee ein!''
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(Oh! How sweet coffee does taste,
(Oh! How sweet coffee does taste,
Better than a thousand kisses,
Better than a thousand kisses,
Line 208:
Line 132:
:And if someone wants to perk me up, *
:And if someone wants to perk me up, *
:Oh, just give me a cup of coffee!)</poem></blockquote>
:Oh, just give me a cup of coffee!)</poem></blockquote>
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===イタリア===
=== Italy ===
[[File:Papst Clemens VIII Italian 17th century.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Pope Clement VIII|教皇クレメンス8世]]:キリスト教徒の間でヨーロッパにおけるコーヒーを普及させた教皇]]
[[File:Papst Clemens VIII Italian 17th century.jpg|thumb|Pope Clement VIII: The Pope who popularised coffee in Europe among Christians]]
イタリアでは、ヨーロッパのほとんどの地域と同様に、コーヒーは16世紀後半に[[:en:Mediterranean Sea|地中海]]の商業路を通じて伝わった。1580年、ヴェネツィアの植物学者で医師の[[:en:Prospero Alpini|プロスペロ・アルピーニ]]がエジプトから[[:en:Republic of Venice|ヴェネツィア共和国]]にコーヒーを輸入し、コーヒーが広まって知識人や社交の場、さらには恋人たちの飲み物となるにつれて、次々とコーヒーショップが開店し、チョコレートとコーヒーの皿はロマンチックな贈り物と見なされた。1763年までに[[:en:Venice|ヴェネツィア]]だけで200以上のコーヒーショップがあり、この奇跡の飲み物の健康上の利点は多くの人々に称賛された。カトリック教会の一部代表者は、コーヒーがイタリアに最初に導入された際、「悪魔の飲み物」であると信じて反対したが、[[:en:Pope Clement VIII|教皇クレメンス8世]]は自らこの香りの良い飲み物を試した後、祝福を与え、その商業的成功と普及をさらに促進した。コーヒーを味わった[[:en:Pope Clement VIII|教皇クレメンス8世]]は、「なぜ、この悪魔の飲み物はこれほどおいしいのか、異教徒が独占的に使用させるのはもったいない」と宣言した。クレメンスは、コーヒーがアルコール飲料よりも人々に良いように思われたため、豆を祝福したとされる。しばしば引用される年は1600年である。これが真実の物語であるかは不明だが、当時としては面白い話だったのかもしれない。
In Italy, like in most of Europe, coffee arrived in the second half of the 16th century through the commercial routes of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. In 1580 the Venetian botanist and physician [[Prospero Alpini]] imported coffee into the [[Republic of Venice]] from Egypt, and soon coffee shops started opening one by one when coffee spread and became the drink of the intellectuals, of social gatherings, even of lovers as plates of chocolate and coffee were considered a romantic gift. By the year 1763 [[Venice]] alone accounted for more than 200 coffee shops, and the health benefits of the miraculous drink were celebrated by many. Some representatives of the Catholic Church opposed coffee at its first introduction in Italy, believing it to be the "Devil's drink", but [[Pope Clement VIII]], after trying the aromatic drink himself, gave it his blessing, thus boosting further its commercial success and diffusion. Upon tasting coffee, Pope Clement VIII declared: "Why, this Satan's drink is so delicious that it would be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive use of it." Clement allegedly blessed the bean because it appeared better for the people than alcoholic beverages. The year often cited is 1600. It is not clear whether this is a true story, but it may have been found amusing at the time.
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1933年、[[:en:Turin|トリノ]]でイタリア人エンジニアのルイージ・ディ・ポンティが最初の[[:en:moka pot|モカポット]]を発明し、後にその特許を[[:en:Alfonso Bialetti|アルフォンソ・ビアレッティ]]に売却した。1946年、アルフォンソの息子[[:en:Renato Bialetti|レナート]]が工業生産を開始し、わずか1年間で数百万個のモカポットを販売した(彼の父親がそれまでの10年間で販売したのはわずか7万個であった)ことにより、このコーヒーメーカー(そしてコーヒー)は世界におけるイタリアの象徴となった。今日、コーヒーの街として知られている[[:en:Naples|ナポリ]]には、おそらく[[:en:Sicily|シチリア島]]やナポリ自身の港に入港する船を通じて、より遅くコーヒーが伝わった。ナポリでのコーヒーの発見は、1614年に作曲家、探検家、音楽学者の[[:en:Pietro Della Valle|ピエトロ・デッラ・ヴァッレ]]が[[:en:Holy Land|聖地]]から、親愛なる友人である医師、詩人、ギリシャ学者マリオ・スキパノとその知識人仲間への手紙の中で、アラブのイスラム教徒が熱い鍋で淹れる飲み物([[Turkish coffee/ja|「カフヴェ」]]と呼ばれる)のニュースを送った時に遡るとする説もある。
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コーヒーがナポリにさらに早く、[[:en:Salerno|サレルノ]]とその[[:en:Schola Medica Salernitana|サレルノ医学校]]から伝わったと信じる者もいる。そこでは、14世紀から15世紀にかけて、コーヒー植物がその薬効のために使われるようになった。ナポリの芸術、文学、音楽、そして日常の社会生活で称賛されたコーヒーは、まもなくナポリの主役となり、1819年にパリのモリゼの発明に由来する典型的なナポリのフィルターコーヒーポット「クックメッラ」で細心の注意を払って淹れられた。ナポリの職人たちは、再び海の商業路を通じてナポリ港に持ち込まれた際にそれに触れたのである。ナポリの人々がコーヒーを社交的な飲み物として捉えていることを示すものに、[[:en:Caffè sospeso|サスペンデッド・コーヒー]](次に利用する客のためにコーヒー代を前払いする行為)の習慣がある。これはナポリで発明され、ナポリの哲学者・作家である[[:en:Luciano De Crescenzo|ルチアーノ・デ・クレシェンツォ]]によって「個人から人類への贈り物」と定義されたコーヒーである。
In [[Turin]], in 1933, Italian engineer Luigi Di Ponti invented the first [[moka pot]] and subsequently sold the patent to [[Alfonso Bialetti]]. In 1946 Alfonso's son [[Renato Bialetti|Renato]] started industrial production, selling millions of moka pots in one year, versus only 70000 sold by his father in the previous 10, making the coffee maker (as well as coffee) an icon of Italy in the world. [[Naples]], albeit being known today as the city of coffee, has seen it later, probably through the ships coming in the ports of [[Sicily]] and Naples itself. Some date the Neapolitan discovery of coffee back to 1614, when the composer, explorer and musicologist [[Pietro Della Valle]] sent news from the [[Holy Land]], in his letters to the dear friend, physician, poet, Greek scholar and Mario Schipano and his gathering of intellectuals, of a drink (called [[Turkish coffee|kahve]]) the Arab Muslims brewed in hot pots.
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===オランダ===
Some believe coffee arrived in Naples earlier, from [[Salerno]] and its [[Schola Medica Salernitana]], where the plant came to be used for its medicinal properties between the 14th and 15th centuries. Celebrated by Neapolitan art, literature, music and daily social life, coffee soon became a protagonist in Naples, where it was prepared with great care in the "cuccumella", the typical Neapolitan filter coffee pot derived by the invention of the parisian Morize in 1819. Neapolitan artisans came in touch with it when brought, once again through the sea commercial routes, to the Port of Naples. An indication of the approach of Neapolitans to coffee as a social drink, is the practice of the [[Caffè sospeso|suspended coffee]] (the act of paying in advance for a coffee to be consumed by the next customer) invented there and defined by the Neapolitan philosopher and writer [[Luciano De Crescenzo]] a coffee "given by an individual to mankind".
{{Further/ja|:en:Dutch East India Company}}
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生きたコーヒーの木や豆を手に入れようとするヨーロッパ諸国の競争は、最終的に1616年に[[:en:Dutch (ethnic group)|オランダ人]]が制した。オランダの商人[[:en:Pieter van den Broecke|ピーテル・ファン・デン・ブローケ]]は、1616年にイエメンのモカから厳重に管理されていたコーヒーの木をいくつか入手した。彼はそれらをアムステルダムに持ち帰り、植物園で居場所を見つけ、そこで繁茂し始めた。この一見些細な出来事はほとんど公にならなかったが、コーヒーの歴史に大きな影響を与えることになった。
The race among Europeans to obtain live coffee trees or beans was eventually won by the [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]] in 1616. [[Pieter van den Broecke]], a Dutch merchant, obtained some of the closely guarded coffee bushes from Mocha, Yemen, in 1616. He took them back to Amsterdam and found a home for them in the Botanical gardens, where they began to thrive. This apparently minor event received little publicity but was to have a major impact on the history of coffee.
The beans that van der Broecke acquired from Mocha forty years earlier adjusted well to conditions in the greenhouses at the Amsterdam Botanical Garden and produced numerous healthy ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' bushes. In 1658 the Dutch first used them to begin coffee cultivation in [[Ceylon]] (now Sri Lanka) and later in southern India. They abandoned this cultivation to focus on their Javanese plantations in order to avoid lowering the price by oversupply.
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===ポーランド===
Within a few years, the Dutch colonies ([[Java]] in Asia, [[Suriname]] in the Americas) had become the main suppliers of coffee to Europe.
コーヒーは17世紀に[[:en:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|ポーランド・リトアニア共和国]]に到達し、主に隣接する[[:en:Ottoman Empire|オスマン帝国]]との貿易商人を通じて伝わった。最初のコーヒーショップは1世紀後に開店した。[[:en:Fall of communism|1989年の政変]]以降、コーヒーの摂取量は増加したが、一人当たりの消費量はほとんどのヨーロッパ諸国よりも低い。コーヒーを含むあらゆるものが不足していた共産主義時代には、ポーランド人は[[Cereal coffee/ja|焙煎穀物]]から作られた独自のコーヒー代替品、[[:en:Inka (drink)|インカ]]を開発した。
[[File:Coffee; from plantation to cup. A brief history of coffee production and consumption. With an appendix containing letters written during a trip to the coffee plantations of the East and through the (20541585900).jpg|thumb|275x275px|コーヒー農園]]
Coffee reached the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in the 17th century, primarily through merchants trading with the neighbouring Ottoman Empire. The first coffee shops opened a century later. The intake of coffee has grown since the [[Fall of communism|change of government]] in 1989, though consumption per capita is lower than in most European countries. During the Communist period, where there were shortages of everything, including coffee, Poles developed their own [[Coffee substitute|substitute]] to coffee, [[Inka (drink)|Inka]], made from [[Cereal coffee|roasted cereal]].
[[:en:Gabriel de Clieu|ガブリエル・ド・クリュー]]は1720年にカリブ海の[[:en:Martinique|マルティニーク]]にコーヒーの苗木をもたらした。これらの苗木は繁茂し、50年後にはマルティニークに18,680本のコーヒーの木が生い茂り、[[:en:Saint-Domingue|サン=ドマング]]([[:en:Haiti|ハイチ]])、[[:en:Mexico|メキシコ]]、その他のカリブ海の島々へのコーヒー栽培の拡大を可能にした。フランス領のサン=ドマングでは1734年にコーヒー栽培が始まり、1788年までに世界のコーヒーの半分を供給した。コーヒーは[[:en:Latin America|ラテンアメリカ]]の地理に大きな影響を与えた。フランスの植民地プランテーションはアフリカ人奴隷労働者に大きく依存していた。しかし、奴隷たちがコーヒー農園で働いていた悲惨な状況は、まもなく起こる[[:en:Haitian Revolution|ハイチ革命]]の一因となった。現地のコーヒー産業はその後完全に回復することはなかった。
Nowadays, Poland is experiencing an explosion of coffee consumption through rapid expansion of cafes, and new trends such as the specialty coffee.
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コーヒーは[[:en:Indian Ocean|インド洋]]にある[[:en:Isle of Bourbon|ブルボン島]](現在はレユニオンとして知られる)にも伝わった。この植物はより小さな豆を生産し、''var. Bourbon''として知られるアラビカ種の異なる品種と見なされた。[[:en:Brazil|ブラジル]]のサントスコーヒーと[[:en:Oaxaca|メキシコ]]のオアハカコーヒーは、そのブルボン種の木の子孫である。1727年頃、[[:en:King of Portugal|ポルトガル王]]は[[:en:Francisco de Melo Palheta|フランシスコ・デ・メロ・パリエータ]]を[[:en:French Guiana|フランス領ギアナ]]に派遣し、コーヒー市場に参入するためにコーヒーの種子を入手させた。フランシスコは当初これらの種子を入手するのに苦労したが、フランス総督の妻を魅了し、彼女はブラジルのコーヒー産業を開始するのに十分な種子と苗条を彼に送った。しかし、栽培は1822年の独立まで本格化せず、その結果、リオ近郊から始まり、後には[[:en:São Paulo|サンパウロ]]へと広がる[[:en:Atlantic Forest|大西洋岸森林]]の広大な土地がコーヒー農園のために開墾された。
[[File:Coffee; from plantation to cup. A brief history of coffee production and consumption. With an appendix containing letters written during a trip to the coffee plantations of the East and through the (20541585900).jpg|thumb|275x275px|Coffee plantation]]
[[Gabriel de Clieu]] brought coffee seedlings to [[Martinique]] in the Caribbean in 1720. Those sprouts flourished and 50 years later there were 18,680 coffee trees in Martinique enabling the spread of coffee cultivation to [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Haiti]]), Mexico and other islands of the Caribbean. The French territory of Saint-Domingue saw coffee cultivated starting in 1734, and by 1788 supplied half the world's coffee. Coffee had a major influence on the geography of Latin America. The French colonial plantations relied heavily on African slave laborers. However, the dreadful conditions that the slaves worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the soon-to-follow [[Haitian Revolution]]. The coffee industry never fully recovered there.
Coffee also found its way to the [[Isle of Bourbon]], now known as Réunion, in the [[Indian Ocean]]. The plant produced smaller beans and was deemed a different variety of arabica known as ''var. Bourbon''. The Santos coffee of [[Brazil]] and the [[Oaxaca]] coffee of Mexico are the progeny of that Bourbon tree. Circa 1727, the [[King of Portugal]] sent [[Francisco de Melo Palheta]] to [[French Guiana]] to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco initially had difficulty obtaining these seeds, but he captivated the French Governor's wife, and she sent him enough seeds and shoots to commence the coffee industry of Brazil. However, cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822, leading to the clearing of massive tracts of the [[Atlantic Forest]], first from the vicinity of Rio and later [[São Paulo]] for coffee plantations.
In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]] (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey.
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19世紀後半には多くの国で栽培が始められたが、そのほとんどすべてにおいて、先住民族の大規模な追放と搾取が伴った。過酷な状況は、多くの蜂起、クーデター、そして農民の血なまぐさい弾圧につながった。例えば、[[:en:Guatemala|グアテマラ]]は1500年代にコーヒー生産を開始したが、コーヒー豆を収穫する人手が不足していた。その結果、グアテマラ政府は先住民族に畑での労働を強制した。これは、今日まで続く先住民族とグアテマラ国民の関係に緊張をもたらした。注目すべき例外は[[Coffee production in Costa Rica/ja|コスタリカ]]であり、そこでは労働力の不足が大規模農場の形成を妨げた。小規模農場とより平等な条件が、19世紀から20世紀にかけての不安を緩和した。
After the [[Boston Tea Party]] of 1773, large numbers of Americans switched to drinking coffee during the [[American Revolution]] because drinking tea had become unpatriotic.
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20世紀には、[[:en:Latin America|ラテンアメリカ]]諸国は経済崩壊の可能性に直面した。[[:en:World War II|第二次世界大戦]]前、ヨーロッパは大量のコーヒーを消費していた。戦争が始まると、ラテンアメリカは市場の40%を失い、経済崩壊の危機に瀕した。コーヒーは当時も現在もラテンアメリカの産物である。米国はこの状況を認識し、ラテンアメリカ諸国と協議した結果、生産国は米国市場の公平な分割に合意した。米国政府はこの合意を監視した。この計画が実行された期間、コーヒーの価値は2倍になり、コーヒー生産者とラテンアメリカ諸国に大きな利益をもたらした。
Cultivation was taken up by many countries in the latter half of the 19th century, and in almost all of them it involved the large-scale displacement and exploitation of indigenous people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups and bloody suppressions of peasants. For example, [[Guatemala]] started producing coffee in the 1500s but lacked the manpower to harvest the coffee beans. As a result, the Guatemalan government forced indigenous people to work on the fields. This led to a strain in the indigenous and Guatemalan people's relationship that still exists today. A notable exception is [[Coffee production in Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] where a lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th centuries.
In the 20th century Latin American countries faced a possible economic collapse. Before [[World War II]] Europe was consuming large amounts of coffee. Once the war started Latin America lost 40% of its market and was on the verge of economic collapse. Coffee was and is a Latin American commodity. The United States saw this and talked with the Latin American countries and as a result the producers agreed on an equitable division of the U.S. market. The U.S. government monitored this agreement. For the period that this plan was followed the value of coffee doubled, which greatly benefited coffee producers and the Latin American countries.
[[Brazil]] became the largest producer of coffee in the world by 1852 and it has held that status ever since. It dominated world production, exporting more coffee than the rest of the world combined, from 1850 to 1950. The period since 1950 saw the widening of the playing field due to the emergence of several other major producers, notably [[Colombia]], [[Ivory Coast]], Ethiopia, and, most recently, [[Vietnam]], which overtook Colombia and became the second-largest producer in 1999 and reached 15% market share by 2011.
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==アジア{{Anchor|Asia}}==
Recent additions to the coffee market are [[latte]]s, [[Frappuccino]]s and other sugary coffee drinks. This has caused coffee houses to be able to use cheaper coffee beans in their coffee.
During the cultivation, brewed coffee was reserved exclusively for the priesthood and the medical profession; doctors would use the brew for patients experiencing a need for better digestion, and priests used it to stay alert during their long nights of studying for the church.
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[[File:2015 0117 Monsooned Malabar beans unroosted.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Monsooned Malabar|モンスーン・マラバール]]のアラビカ種と、[[:en:Coffee production in Ethiopia|エチオピア]]産の緑色のイルガチェフェ豆との比較]]
[[File:2015 0117 Monsooned Malabar beans unroosted.jpg|thumb|[[Monsooned Malabar]] arabica, compared with green Yirgachefe beans from [[Coffee production in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]]]
Coffee came to India well before the East India company
In the 17th century, the first record of coffee growing in [[India]] is following the introduction of coffee beans from [[Yemen]], during his pilgrimage to Mecca. He planted these beans in the [[Chikmagalur district|Chandragiri hills]] of Karnataka, which are now named [[Baba Budangiri|Baba Budan Giri]] in his honor. This act marked the beginning of coffee cultivation in India, extending south to [[Kodagu]].
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[[Coffee production in India/ja|インドのコーヒー生産]]は、[[:en:South India|南インド]]の丘陵地帯で盛んであり、[[:en:Karnataka|カルナータカ州]]が53%、[[:en:Kerala|ケララ州]]が28%、[[:en:Tamil Nadu|タミル・ナードゥ州]]が11%を占め、総生産量8,200[[:en:Tonne|トン]]のうちのほとんどを占める。インドのコーヒーは、世界中のどこよりも直射日光ではなく日陰で栽培された最高級のコーヒーだと言われている。インドには約25万人のコーヒー生産者がおり、その98%は小規模生産者である。2009年現在、インドのコーヒー生産量は世界の総生産量のわずか4.5%に過ぎない。同国のコーヒー生産量のほぼ80%が輸出されている。輸出されるもののうち、70%はドイツ、ロシア連邦、スペイン、ベルギー、スロベニア、米国、日本、ギリシャ、オランダ、フランス向けであり、[[:en:Italy|イタリア]]が輸出量の29%を占める。ほとんどの輸出は[[:en:Suez Canal|スエズ運河]]を経由して行われる。
In India, the word for coffee is "[[Indian filter coffee|kaapi]]" in several South Indian languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada.
[[Coffee production in India]] is dominated in the hill tracts of [[South India]]n states, with the state of [[Karnataka]] accounting 53% followed by [[Kerala]] 28% and [[Tamil Nadu]] 11% of production of 8,200 [[Tonne]]s. Indian coffee is said to be the finest coffee grown in the shade rather than direct sunlight anywhere in the world. There are approximately 250,000 coffee growers in India; 98% of them are small growers. As of 2009, the production of coffee in India was only 4.5% of the total production in the world. Almost 80% of the country's coffee production is exported. Of that which is exported, 70% is bound for Germany, Russian federation, Spain, Belgium, Slovenia, United States, Japan, Greece, Netherlands and France, and Italy accounts for 29% of the exports. Most of the export is shipped through the [[Suez Canal]].
Coffee is grown in three regions of India with Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu forming the traditional coffee growing region of South India, followed by the new areas developed in the non-traditional areas of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] in the eastern coast of the country and with a third region comprising the states of [[Assam]], Manipur, [[Meghalaya]], Mizoram, [[Tripura]], Nagaland and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] of [[Northeastern India]], popularly known as "Seven Sister States of India".
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====チクマガルール====
Indian coffee, grown mostly in southern India under monsoon rainfall conditions, is also termed as "Indian monsooned coffee". Its flavour is defined as: "The best Indian coffee reaches the flavour characteristics of Pacific coffees, but at its worst it is simply bland and uninspiring". The two well-known species of coffee grown are the [[Arabica coffee|Arabica]] and [[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]. The first variety that was introduced in the [[Baba Budan Giri]] hill ranges of Karnataka in the 17th century was marketed over the years under the brand names of Kent and [[S.795 coffee|S.795]]. Coffee is served in a distinctive drip-style "[[Indian filter coffee|filter coffee]]" across [[Southern India]].
Coffee is the cornerstone of [[Chikmagalur district|Chikmagalur's]] economy. Chikmagalur is the birthplace of coffee in India, where the seed was first sown about 350 years ago.
Coffee Board is the department located in Chikmagalur town that oversees the production and marketing of coffee cultivated in the district.
Coffee is cultivated in Chikmagalur district in an area of around 85,465 hectares with Arabica being the dominant variety grown in upper hills and Robusta being the major variety in the low-level hills. There are around 15,000 coffee growers in this district with 96% of them being small growers with holdings of less than or equal to 4 hectares. The average production is 55,000 MT: 35,000 MT of Arabica and 20,000 MT of Robusta.
Arabica is a species of coffee that is also known as the "[[Arabic coffee|coffee shrub of Arabia"]], "mountain coffee" or "arabica coffee". Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, being grown in southwest Arabia for well over 1,000 years. It is considered to produce better coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora (Robusta). Arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee.
[[Robusta coffee|Robusta]] is a species of coffee which has its origins in western Africa. It is grown mostly in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called Conillon. It is also grown in Southeast Asia where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century. In recent years Vietnam, which only produces Robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the world's single largest exporter. Approximately one third of the coffee produced in the world is Robusta.
Coffee was introduced to Japan by the Dutch in the 17th century but remained a curiosity until the lifting of trade restrictions in 1858. The first European-style coffeehouse opened in Tokyo in 1888 and closed four years later. By the early 1930s there were over 30,000 coffeehouses across the country; availability in the wartime and immediate postwar period dropped to nearly zero, then rapidly increased as import barriers were removed. The introduction of freeze-dried instant coffee, canned coffee, and franchises such as [[Starbucks]] and [[Doutor Coffee]] in the late 20th century continued this trend, to the point that Japan is now one of the leading per capita coffee consumers in the world.
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===韓国===
===South Korea===
コーヒーが韓国に初めて注目すべき熱狂的な支持者を得たのは、19世紀の[[:en:Sunjong|純宗]]皇帝と[[:en:Gojong of the Korean Empire|高宗]]皇帝であり、彼らは西洋式宴会の後にコーヒーを飲むことを好んだ。1902年に韓国初のコーヒーショップが開店した後、コーヒーは西洋文化と地位の象徴と見なす韓国のエリート層に楽しまれた。コーヒーはその後、1950年代に韓国に駐留していたアメリカ兵によって一般大衆に紹介された。小規模な個人経営のコーヒーショップ「ダバン」の数は急速に増加し、1950年代後半には3,000軒を超えた。1976年、韓国の飲料会社ドンソ食品は、インスタントコーヒー、クリーマー、砂糖を個別のパケットに詰めた「コーヒーミックス」を発売した。この製品はインスタントコーヒーの普及に貢献し、後に[[:en:1997 Asian financial crisis|アジア通貨危機]]後にはオフィスでの必需品となった。1980年代までにはインスタントコーヒーと缶コーヒーがかなり普及し、大都市には小規模な個人経営のコーヒーハウスの伝統も細々と存在した。世紀末に向けて、[[:en:Caffe Bene|カフェベネ]]や[[Starbucks/ja|スターバックス]]などのフランチャイズの成長がヨーロッパ式コーヒーへの需要を高め、ダバンの衰退につながった。
Coffee's first notable Korean enthusiasts were 19th century emperors [[Sunjong]] and [[Gojong of the Korean Empire|Gojong]], who preferred to consume it after western-style banquets. After Korea's first coffee shop opened 1902, coffee was enjoyed by Korea's elites, who viewed coffee as a symbol of western culture and status. Coffee was later introduced to the general public in the 1950s by American soldiers stationed in Korea. The number of small, individually owned coffee shops, called ''dabang'', increased rapidly; by the late 1950s, there were over 3,000 of them. In 1976, Korean beverage company Dongsuh Foods introduced the ''coffee mix'', a mixture of instant coffee, creamer and sugar packaged in individual packets. This product contributed to the popularization of instant coffee, and later became an office staple after the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|Asian financial crisis]]. By the 1980s instant coffee and canned coffee had become fairly popular, with a more minor tradition of independently owned coffeehouses in larger cities. Toward the end of the century the growth of franchises such as [[Caffe Bene]] and Starbucks brought about a greater demand for European-style coffee, and led to the decline of dabangs.
Coffee was first introduced by the Dutch during colonization in the late 17th century. After several years coffee was planted on Indonesia Archipelago. Many coffee specialties are from the Indonesian Archipelago. The colloquial name for coffee, Java, comes from the time when most of Europe and America's coffee was grown in Java. Today Indonesia is one of the largest coffee producers in the world, mainly for export. However, coffee is enjoyed in various ways around the archipelago, for example, the traditional "[[kopi tubruk]]".
The Philippines is one of the few countries that produces the four varieties of commercially viable coffee: Arabica, Liberica (Barako), Excelsa and Robusta. Although it is generally said that coffee was introduced to [[Lipa, Batangas|Lipa]] in 1740 by a Spanish [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] friar, there is actually little first-hand evidence to substantiate this. Regardless, by the early 19th century, coffee was being cultivated throughout the Philippines and subsequently exported to America and Australia, followed by Europe with the opening of the [[Suez Canal]]. Lipa is commonly attributed as being the center of this cultivation, until roughly 1889, when its industry abruptly failed, likely due to pests, [[Hemileia vastatrix|coffee rust]] (which the Philippines had managed to avoid for longer than the rest of the world), and [[Philippine Revolution|political factors]].
Following this destruction, the Philippines' place in the global coffee supply chain faltered, and would be slow to recover. Throughout the 20th century, various government initiatives were implemented to revive the industry, despite that the Philippines would gradually begin importing more instant coffee than it was exporting. Regardless, a coffee culture has been developing since the 1990s, following the Philippines joining the [[International Coffee Organization]] in 1980, and now many specialty coffee shops can be found around the country.
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===ベトナム===
===Vietnam===
ベトナムは世界の主要なコーヒー輸出国の一つである。アラビカ種は1857年以来、ベトナムに初めて輸入されたコーヒー品種である。当初は北部地方で栽培されていたが、コーヒー栽培は中部および西部高原に広がり、現在ではベトナムのコーヒーの大部分を生産している。中でも特筆すべきは、「ベトナムのコーヒーの首都」として知られる[[:en:Buôn Ma Thuột|バンメトート]]市である。
Vietnam is one of the world's main coffee exporters. Arabica is the first imported coffee variety to Vietnam since 1857. Initially being grown in the northern provinces, the cultivation of coffee spread until it reached the Central and Western Highlands, which now produce a majority of Vietnam's coffee. Most notably among these is the city of [[Buôn Ma Thuột]], which is known as the "coffee capital of Vietnam".
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[[:en:Trung Nguyen|チュン・グエン]]コーヒーは[[:en:Dang Le Nguyen Vu|ダン・レ・グエン・ヴー]]によって1996年に設立され、今日までベトナムを代表するコーヒーブランドである。
[[Trung Nguyen]] Coffee was founded in 1996 by [[Dang Le Nguyen Vu]], and is the premier coffee brand in Vietnam to this day.
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==生産{{Anchor|Production}}==
==Production==
ヨーロッパ人がコーヒー生産の手段を手中に収める最初の段階は、アムステルダム市長であり[[:en:Dutch East India Company|オランダ東インド会社]]理事会のメンバーであった企業家[[:en:Nicolaes Witsen|ニコラース・ウィッツェン]]によって実現した。彼は[[:en:Batavia, Dutch East Indies|バタヴィア]]のオランダ総督[[:en:Joan van Hoorn|ヨアン・ファン・ホールン]]に対し、ヨーロッパへの供給源であるイエメンの輸出港[[:en:Mocha, Yemen|モカ]]でコーヒーの木を入手し、オランダ東インド諸島に定着させるよう促した。最初の輸送で得られた種子から多くの植物を育てるこの計画は大成功を収め、1719年にはオランダ東インド会社が「ジャワコーヒー」でヨーロッパの需要を満たすことができるようになった。成功に後押しされ、彼らはすぐに[[:en:Ceylon|セイロン]]、[[:en:Sumatra|スマトラ]]、その他のスンダ諸島にもコーヒー農園を設立した。コーヒーの木はすぐに[[:en:Hortus Botanicus Leiden|ライデン植物園]]の温室で栽培され、そこから他の植物園にも惜しみなく苗が提供された。[[:en:Treaty of Utrecht|ユトレヒト条約]]につながる交渉で、オランダの代表者はフランスの代表者にコーヒーの木を贈呈した。この木はパリの''Jardin du Roi''([[:en:Jardin des Plantes|ジャルダン・デ・プラント]]の前身)で栽培された。
The first step in Europeans' wresting the means of production was effected by [[Nicolaes Witsen]], the enterprising burgomaster of Amsterdam and member of the governing board of the [[Dutch East India Company]] who urged [[Joan van Hoorn]], the Dutch governor at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] in Yemen, the source of Europe's supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies; the project of raising many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with such success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europe's demand with "Java coffee" by 1719. Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in [[Ceylon]], [[Sumatra]] and other Sunda islands. Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the [[Hortus Botanicus Leiden|Hortus Botanicus of Leiden]], whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the ''Jardin du Roi'', predecessor of the [[Jardin des Plantes]], in Paris.
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コーヒーがアメリカ大陸に導入されたのは、[[:en:Gabriel DeClieu|ガブリエル・デ・クリュー船長]]によって行われた。彼は、国王のコーヒーの木を傷つけることに気が進まなかった植物学者[[:en:Antoine de Jussieu|アントワーヌ・ド・ジュシュー]]から、渋々ながら挿し木を入手した。困難な航海の途中で水の配給が減った時、クリューは自分の分け前を貴重な植物と分け合い、オランダ人(おそらくバタヴィア貿易を羨む州の代理人)からそれらを守った。クリューは西インド諸島に到着すると植物を大切に育て、[[:en:Martinique|マルティニーク]]に加え、[[:en:Guadeloupe|グアドループ]]と[[:en:Saint-Domingue|サン=ドマング]]にも定着させた。マルティニークでは[[:en:cacao plantation|カカオ農園]]を疫病が襲い、3年以内にコーヒー農園に置き換えられ、これはフランスがマルティニークや西インド諸島の植民地化を通じて大陸の多くの地域にコーヒーをもたらしたとされている。
The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by [[Gabriel DeClieu|Captain Gabriel des Clieux]], who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist [[Antoine de Jussieu]], who was loath to disfigure the king's coffee tree. Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, shared his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces jealous of the Batavian trade. Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in [[Guadeloupe]] and [[Saint-Domingue]] in addition to [[Martinique]], where a blight had struck the [[cacao plantation]]s, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a space of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded.
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ブラジルで最初のコーヒー農園は1727年に開設された。フランシスコ・デ・メロ・パリエータ中佐が、本質的にはイエメンからバタヴィアへ持ち込まれた生殖質に由来する種子を、[[:en:French Guiana|フランス領ギアナ]]から密輸したことによるものである。1800年代までには、ブラジルの収穫によりコーヒーはエリート層の贅沢品から大衆の飲み物へと変わった。ブラジルは、他のほとんどの国と同様にコーヒーを商業的商品として栽培しているが、[[:en:Lei Áurea|1888年の奴隷制度廃止]]までは、農園の存続のために[[:en:Slavery in Brazil|アフリカからの奴隷労働]]に大きく依存していた。17世紀のヨーロッパにおけるコーヒーの成功は、[[:en:Thirty Years' War|三十年戦争]](1618年~1648年)の間に大陸全体で[[:en:tobacco smoking|タバコを吸う]]習慣が広まったことと並行していた。
The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggled seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm originally taken from Yemen to Batavia, from [[French Guiana]]. By the 1800s, Brazil's harvests would turn coffee from an elite indulgence to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on [[Slavery in Brazil|slave labor from Africa]] for the viability of the plantations until the [[Lei Áurea|abolition of slavery in 1888]]. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of [[tobacco smoking]] all over the continent during the course of the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648).
For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolist in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such as [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Vietnam]], now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995. Nearly all of the coffee grown there is Robusta.
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エチオピアにおけるコーヒー栽培の起源にもかかわらず、同国は20世紀まで輸出量が少なく、その多くは南部の地域からではなく、北東部の[[:en:Harar|ハラル]]周辺からのものであった。コーヒー植物の原産地である[[:en:Kingdom of Kaffa|カッファ王国]]は、1880年代には5万〜6万キログラムのコーヒー豆を生産していたと推定されている。商業生産は、1907年に内陸港[[:en:Gambela, Ethiopia|ガンベラ]]が設立されてから本格的に始まった。1908年にはガンベラから10万キログラムのコーヒーが輸出され、1927年から1928年には400万キログラム以上がその港を通過した。コーヒー農園は同時期に[[:en:Arsi Province|アルシ州]]でも開発され、最終的には[[:en:Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia|アディスアベバ-ジブチ鉄道]]によって輸出された。鉄道による輸送量は当初24万5千キログラムであったが、1922年には224万キログラムに跳ね上がり、1925年には「ハラリ」コーヒーの輸出量を上回り、1936年には926万キログラムに達した。
Despite the origins of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the twentieth century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the environs of [[Harar]] in the northeast. The [[Kingdom of Kaffa]], home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of [[Gambela, Ethiopia|Gambela]]. 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927–1928 over 4 million kilograms passed through that port. Coffee plantations were also developed in [[Arsi Province]] at the same time and were eventually exported by means of the [[Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia|Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway]]. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of "Harari" coffee by 1925, and reached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936.
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オーストラリアは小規模なコーヒー生産国であり、輸出用の製品はほとんどないが、そのコーヒーの歴史は1880年に遡る。この時、北部[[:en:New South Wales|ニューサウスウェールズ州]]と[[:en:Cooktown, Queensland|クックタウン]]の間の地域で最初の500[[:en:acre|エーカー]](約2平方キロメートル)の栽培が始まった。今日、オーストラリアにはアラビカコーヒーを生産する複数の生産者がおり、彼らは1981年に発明された機械収穫システムを使用している。
Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of {{convert|500|acre|km2}} began to be developed in an area between northern [[New South Wales]] and [[Cooktown, Queensland|Cooktown]]. Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981.
コーヒーに関する初期の最も重要な著述家の一人が、1587年にコーヒーの歴史と法的な論争をたどる著作『Umdat al Safwa fi hill al-qahwa(عمدة الصفوة في حل القهوة)』を編纂したアブド・アル=カーディル・アル=ジャズィーリーである。この著作は、コーヒーが「幸福のアラビア」(現在のイエメン)から北方のメッカやメディナ、そしてさらに大きな都市であるカイロ、ダマスカス、バグダッド、コンスタンティノープルへと広まった経緯をたどっている。彼は、アデンのムフティであるシャイフ、ジャマール・アッディーン・アル=ダバーニ(1470年没)が、最初にコーヒーの使用を採用した(およそ1454年)と報告している。
彼はその効能の中に、疲労や倦怠感を払い、体に一定の活気と活力をもたらすことを見出した。
アル=ジャズィーリーの写本は、ヨーロッパにおけるコーヒーの歴史に関しても非常に興味深い。その写本の一部はフランス王立図書館に所蔵され、アントワーヌ・ガランによって『De l'origine et du progrès du café』(1699年)として部分的に翻訳されたである。
コーヒーがヨーロッパに初めて伝えられたのはハンガリーで、1526年のモハーチの戦いでトルコ軍がハンガリーに侵攻した時である。それから1年以内に、ウィーン包囲 (1529年)でヨーロッパ軍と戦った同じトルコ人によって、コーヒーはウィーンに到達した。16世紀後半には、コーヒーは奴隷制度を通じてマルタ島に導入された。1565年のマルタ大包囲戦の年に、聖ヨハネ騎士団によって投獄されたトルコ系ムスリムの奴隷たちが、彼らの伝統的な飲料を作るために使われた。ドメニコ・マーグリは自身の著作『Virtu del Kafé』の中で、「この調合の最も熟練した作り手であるトルコ人」と述べている。また、ドイツの旅行者グスタフ・ゾンマーフェルトは1663年にこう記している。
「トルコ人捕虜たちが、特に水と砂糖を使って嗅ぎタバコに似た粉末であるコーヒーを準備することで、いくらかの金銭を稼ぐ能力と勤勉さ。」コーヒーはマルタの上流社会で人気のある飲料となり、多くのコーヒーショップが開店した。
ヨーロッパの文献におけるコーヒーの最初の言及は、シャルル・ド・レクリューズの1575年の著書『Aromatum et simplicium aliquot medica-mentorum apud Indos nascientum historia』である。彼はパドヴァのアルフォンシウパンシウスからコーヒーについて学んだ。16世紀後半にサファヴィー朝とオスマン帝国を通過したイギリス人は、コーヒーが「消化を助け、精神を活気づけ、血液を浄化するのに非常に良い」と記している。
この時代、多くの人々はコーヒーに薬効があると信じていた。著名で高名な医師たちは、しばしばコーヒーを薬用として推奨し、神経障害の治療薬として処方することもあった。1661年に「M.P.」という人物によって書かれた「A character of coffee and coffee-houses」と題された小冊子には、これらの認識されていた効能がいくつか挙げられている。
Ei! wie schmeckt der Coffee süße, Lieblicher als tausend Küsse, Milder als Muskatenwein. Coffee, Coffee muss ich haben, Und wenn jemand mich will laben, Ach, so schenkt mir Coffee ein!
(Oh! How sweet coffee does taste,
Better than a thousand kisses,
Milder than muscat wine. Coffee, coffee, I've got to have it, And if someone wants to perk me up, * Oh, just give me a cup of coffee!)
ヨーロッパ人がコーヒー生産の手段を手中に収める最初の段階は、アムステルダム市長でありオランダ東インド会社理事会のメンバーであった企業家ニコラース・ウィッツェンによって実現した。彼はバタヴィアのオランダ総督ヨアン・ファン・ホールンに対し、ヨーロッパへの供給源であるイエメンの輸出港モカでコーヒーの木を入手し、オランダ東インド諸島に定着させるよう促した。最初の輸送で得られた種子から多くの植物を育てるこの計画は大成功を収め、1719年にはオランダ東インド会社が「ジャワコーヒー」でヨーロッパの需要を満たすことができるようになった。成功に後押しされ、彼らはすぐにセイロン、スマトラ、その他のスンダ諸島にもコーヒー農園を設立した。コーヒーの木はすぐにライデン植物園の温室で栽培され、そこから他の植物園にも惜しみなく苗が提供された。ユトレヒト条約につながる交渉で、オランダの代表者はフランスの代表者にコーヒーの木を贈呈した。この木はパリのJardin du Roi(ジャルダン・デ・プラントの前身)で栽培された。