Traditional medicine/ja: Difference between revisions

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=== Classical history ===

{{further|Medicine in ancient Greece|Medicine in ancient Rome}}

In the written record, the study of herbs dates back 5,000 years to the ancient [[Sumer]]ians, who described well-established medicinal uses for plants. In [[Ancient Egyptian medicine]], the [[Ebers papyrus]] from c. 1552 BC records a list of folk remedies and magical medical practices. The [[Old Testament]] also mentions herb use and cultivation in regards to [[Kashrut]].

Many herbs and minerals used in [[Ayurveda]] were described by ancient Indian herbalists such as [[Charaka]] and [[Sushruta]] during the 1st millennium BC. The first [[Chinese herbology|Chinese herbal]] book was the ''[[Shennong|Shennong Bencao Jing]]'', compiled during the [[Han dynasty]] but dating back to a much earlier date, which was later augmented as the ''[[Yaoxing Lun]]'' (''Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs'') during the [[Tang dynasty]]. Early recognised Greek compilers of existing and current herbal knowledge include [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoras and his followers]], [[Hippocrates]], [[Aristotle]], [[Theophrastus]], [[Dioscorides]] and [[Galen]].

Roman sources included [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' and [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus|Celsus]]'s ''[[De Medicina]]''. [[Pedanius Dioscorides]] drew on and corrected earlier authors for his ''[[De Materia Medica]]'', adding much new material; the work was translated into several languages, and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] names were added to it over the centuries. Latin manuscripts of ''De Materia Medica'' were combined with a Latin herbal by [[Pseudo-Apuleius|Apuleius Platonicus]] (''Herbarium Apuleii Platonici'') and were incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon [[codex]] ''Cotton Vitellius C.III''. These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sīnā, 980–1037), the Persian [[Rhazes]] (Rāzi, 865–925) and the Jewish [[Maimonides]].

Some [[fossil]]s have been used in traditional medicine since antiquity.

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===Medieval and later===

{{further|Medicine in medieval Islam|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}

Arabic indigenous medicine developed from the conflict between the magic-based medicine of the [[Bedouin]]s and the Arabic translations of the Hellenic and [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] medical traditions. Spanish medicine was influenced by the Arabs from 711 to 1492. Islamic physicians and [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution|Muslim botanists]] such as [[al-Dinawari]] and [[Ibn al-Baitar]] significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of materia medica. The most famous Persian medical treatise was Avicenna's ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which was an early [[pharmacopoeia]] and introduced [[clinical trial]]s. The ''Canon'' was [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin]] in the 12th century and remained a medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. The [[Unani]] system of traditional medicine is also based on the ''Canon''.

Translations of the early Roman-Greek compilations were made into German by [[Hieronymus Bock]] whose herbal, published in 1546, was called ''Kreuter Buch''. The book was translated into [[Dutch language|Dutch]] as ''Pemptades'' by [[Rembert Dodoens]] (1517–1585), and from Dutch into [[English language|English]] by [[Carolus Clusius]], (1526–1609), published by [[Henry Lyte (botanist)|Henry Lyte]] in 1578 as ''A Nievve Herball''.  This became [[John Gerard]]'s (1545–1612) ''Herball or General Historie of Plantes''. Each new work was a compilation of existing texts with new additions.

Women's folk knowledge existed in undocumented parallel with these texts. Forty-four drugs, diluents, flavouring agents and [[emollient]]s mentioned by Dioscorides are still listed in the official pharmacopoeias of Europe. The [[Pilgrim (Plymouth Colony)|Puritans]] took Gerard's work to the [[United States]] where it influenced American Indigenous medicine.

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[[Francisco Hernández de Toledo|Francisco Hernández]], physician to [[Philip II of Spain]] spent the years 1571–1577 gathering information in [[Mexico]] and then wrote ''Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus'', many versions of which have been published including one by [[Francisco Ximénez]]. Both Hernandez and Ximenez fitted [[Aztec]] ethnomedicinal information into the European concepts of disease such as "warm", "cold", and "moist", but it is not clear that the Aztecs used these categories. [[Juan de Esteyneffer]]'s ''Florilegio medicinal de todas las enfermedas'' compiled European texts and added 35 Mexican plants.

Martín de la Cruz wrote a herbal in [[Nahuatl]] which was translated into [[Latin]] by [[Juan Badiano]] as ''[[Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis]]'' or ''Codex Barberini, Latin 241'' and given to King [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Carlos V]] of Spain in 1552. It was apparently written in haste and influenced by the European occupation of the previous 30 years. Fray [[Bernardino de Sahagún]]'s used [[ethnographic]] methods to compile his codices that then became the ''Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España'', published in 1793. Castore Durante published his ''Herbario Nuovo'' in 1585 describing medicinal plants from Europe and the East and [[West Indies]]. It was translated into German in 1609 and Italian editions were published for the next century.

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===Colonial America===

In 17th and 18th-century America, traditional folk healers, frequently women, used herbal remedies, [[Cupping therapy|cupping]] and [[Leeching (medical)|leeching]]. [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] traditional herbal medicine introduced cures for malaria, dysentery, scurvy, non-venereal syphilis, and goiter problems. Many of these herbal and folk remedies continued on through the 19th and into the 20th century, with some plant medicines forming the basis for modern pharmacology.

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===Modern usage===

The prevalence of folk medicine in certain areas of the world varies according to cultural norms. Some modern medicine is based on plant [[phytochemical]]s that had been used in folk medicine. Researchers state that many of the alternative treatments are "statistically indistinguishable from [[Placebo|placebo treatments]]".

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== Knowledge transmission and creation ==

Indigenous medicine is generally transmitted [[Oral tradition|orally]] through a community, family and individuals until "collected". Within a given culture, elements of indigenous medicine knowledge may be diffusely known by many, or may be gathered and applied by those in a specific role of healer such as a [[Shamanism|shaman]] or [[Midwifery|midwife]]. Three factors legitimize the role of the healer – their own beliefs, the success of their actions and the beliefs of the community. When the claims of indigenous medicine become rejected by a culture, generally three types of adherents still use it – those born and socialized in it who become permanent believers, temporary believers who turn to it in crisis times, and those who only believe in specific aspects, not in all of it.

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== Definition and terminology ==

Traditional medicine may sometimes be considered as distinct from folk medicine, and  considered to include formalized aspects of folk medicine. Under this definition folk medicine are longstanding remedies and practises passed on and practiced by lay people. Folk medicine consists of the [[healing]] modalities, ideas of body [[physiology]] and [[health]] preservation known to some in a culture, transmitted informally as general knowledge, and practiced or applied by anyone in the culture having prior experience.

=== Folk medicine ===

[[File:Curandera performing a limpieza.jpg|thumb|[[Curandera]] performing a ''limpieza'' in Cuenca, Ecuador]]

Many countries have practices described as folk medicine which may coexist with formalized, science-based, and institutionalized systems of medical practice represented by conventional [[medicine]]. Examples of folk medicine traditions are [[traditional Chinese medicine]], [[Iranian traditional medicine]], [[traditional Korean medicine]], [[Medicine in medieval Islam|Arabic indigenous medicine]], [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] traditional medicine, Japanese [[Kampō]] medicine, traditional Aboriginal bush medicine, [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] [[Lāʻau lapaʻau]], and [[Georgian folk medicine]], among others.

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====Australian bush medicine====

{{main|Bush medicine}}

Generally, bush medicine used by [[Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people]] in [[Australia]] is made from plant materials, such as bark, leaves and seeds, although animal products may be used as well. A major component of traditional medicine is [[herbal medicine]], which is the use of natural plant substances to treat or prevent illness.

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==== Native American medicine ====

{{further|Native American ethnobotany|Traditional Alaska Native medicine}}

[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Native]] and [[Alaska Native]] medicine are traditional forms of healing that have been around for thousands of years. There are many [[ethnobotany]] plants involved in traditional medicine for Native Americans and some are still used today. When it comes to Native American traditional medicine, the ideas surrounding health and illness within the culture are virtually inseparable from the ideas of religion and spirituality. Healers within indigenous communities go by many names ranging from [[medicine man]] or woman to herbalist or even shaman and are considered spiritual or religious leaders within their respective tribes. When it comes to healing, tribal healers would look at a plant's characteristics to determine its efficacy for the treatment of an illness. Specific plant characteristics such as plant shape, smell, color, and taste could aid in determining how the plant could be used as a remedy. The Meskwaki tribe found they could use the juice from ''[[Arum maculatum]]'' for snakebites. This was inferred from the milky appearance of the juice from the plant which is said to resemble snake venom, and the plant's shape resembled the head of a snake. Native Americans used [[foxglove]] herb as a treatment for an illness they referred to as dropsy or edema, which is fluid buildup typically in the lower legs, and its common cause is heart failure. In modern medicine, foxglove extract is still used under the name digitalis, and its purpose is to moderate the heart rate. Native Americans were successful with some medical practices, such as treating fevers, gastrointestinal conditions, skin rashes, setting bones, as well as birthing babies, and aiding mothers in healing. A study conducted within an [[Indian Health Service|IHS]] hospital that allows Navajo healers to visit patients found that the hospital had an 80 percent success rate in getting comatose patients back to consciousness, which is higher than the rate of present-day biomedical management hospitals. The plant family ''[[Asteraceae]]'' has been commonly selected for orthopedic aids and pulmonary aids, specifically the species ''Achillea'' and ''Artemisia''. A study conducted amongst 14 different tribes within North America found that ''Asteraceae'' was the most widely used plant family for its medicinal properties.

==== Nattuvaidyam ====

Nattuvaidyam was a set of indigenous medical practices that existed in India before the advent of allopathic or western medicine. These practices had different sets of principles and ideas of the body, health and disease. There were overlaps and borrowing of ideas, medicinal compounds used and techniques within these practices. Some of these practices had written texts in vernacular languages like Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, etc. while others were handed down orally through various mnemonic devices. Ayurveda was one kind of nattuvaidyam practised in south India. The others were kalarichikitsa (related to bone setting and musculature), marmachikitsa (vital spot massaging), ottamoolivaidyam (single dose medicine or single time medication), chintamanivaidyam and so on. When the medical system was revamped in twentieth century India, many of the practices and techniques specific to some of these diverse nattuvaidyam were included in Ayurveda.

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===Home remedies===

A '''home remedy''' (sometimes also referred to as a '''granny cure''') is a treatment to cure a [[disease]] or ailment that employs certain spices, [[herbs]], vegetables, or other common items. Home remedies may or may not have [[medicinal properties]] that treat or cure the disease or ailment in question, as they are typically passed along by laypersons (which has been facilitated in recent years by the [[Internet]]). Many are merely used as a result of [[tradition]] or [[Habituation|habit]] or because they are effective in inducing the [[placebo effect]].

One of the more popular examples of a home remedy is the use of [[chicken soup]] to treat [[Respiratory system|respiratory]] [[infection]]s such as a cold or mild [[flu]]. Other examples of home remedies include [[duct tape]] to help with setting broken bones; duct tape or superglue to treat [[plantar wart]]s; and [[Kogel mogel]] to treat sore throat. In earlier times, mothers were entrusted with all but serious remedies. Historic [[cookbook]]s are frequently full of remedies for [[dyspepsia]], fevers, and female complaints. Components of the [[aloe vera]] plant are used to treat skin disorders. Many European [[List of liqueurs|liqueurs]] or [[Apéritif and digestif|digestifs]] were originally sold as medicinal remedies. In Chinese folk medicine, medicinal [[congee]]s (long-cooked rice soups with herbs), foods, and soups are part of treatment practices.

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==Criticism==

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===Safety concerns===

Although 130 countries have regulations on folk medicines, there are risks associated with the use of them (i.e. [[zoonosis]], mainly as some traditional medicines still use animal-based substances). It is often assumed that because supposed medicines are natural that they are safe, but numerous precautions are associated with using herbal remedies.