View source for Honey/ja

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'''ハチミツ'''は、数種の[[bee/ja|ハチ]]によって作られる甘く[[:en:Viscosity|粘性のある]]物質で、最もよく知られているのは[[honey bee/ja|ミツバチ]]である。ハチミツはハチのコロニーを養うために作られ、貯蔵される。ハチは、植物の糖分を含む分泌物（主に花の[[nectar/ja|蜜]]）や、[[Aphid|アブラムシ]]の[[honeydew (secretion)/ja|甘露]]など、他の昆虫の分泌物を集めて精製することでハチミツを生産する。この精製は、ハチ個体内での[[regurgitation (digestion)/ja|逆流]]や[[enzyme/ja|酵素]]活動によるものと、巣での貯蔵中に水分が蒸発してハチミツの糖分が濃縮され、とろみがついて粘性になることによって行われる。

ミツバチは[[:en:Beehive|巣]]にハチミツを貯蔵する。巣の中には[[:en:honeycomb|ハニカム]]と呼ばれるワックスでできた構造があり、ハニカムは何百、何千もの[[:en:hexagon|六角形]]の部屋で構成されており、ハチはそこにハチミツを[[Regurgitation (digestion)/ja|逆流]]させて貯蔵する。他のハチミツを生産するハチの種は、[[stingless bee/ja|ハリナシミツバチ]]が使用するワックスと[[resin/ja|樹脂]]で作られた壺など、異なる構造に物質を貯蔵する。

人間が消費するためのハチミツは、野生のハチのコロニーから、または家畜化されたハチの[[:en:beehive|巣]]から収集される。ミツバチによって生産されるハチミツは、世界的な商業生産と入手可能性のおかげで、人間にとって最もなじみ深い。ハチの[[:en:Animal husbandry|飼育]]は[[:en:beekeeping|養蜂]]またはアピカルチャーとして知られ、ハリナシミツバチの飼育は通常[[:en:meliponiculture|メリポニカルチャー]]と呼ばれる。

ハチミツは、[[monosaccharide/ja|単糖類]]である[[fructose/ja|果糖]]と[[glucose/ja|ブドウ糖]]の濃度が高いため甘い。[[sucrose/ja|スクロース]]（砂糖）とほぼ同じ相対的な[[sweetness/ja|甘さ]]を持つ。標準的な[[:en:tablespoon|大さじ]]1杯（14mL）のハチミツは、約{{convert|43|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}}の[[food energy/ja|食物エネルギー]]を提供する。[[baking/ja|ベーキング]]においては魅力的な化学的特性を持ち、甘味料として使用すると独特の風味がある。ほとんどの[[microorganism/ja|微生物]]はハチミツ中では増殖できず、密閉されたハチミツは[[Food spoilage/ja|腐敗]]しない。[[:en:Archaeology|考古学]]的文脈で発見されたハチミツのサンプルは、数千年経っても食用可能であることが証明されている。

[[File:Miels d'Alsace agriculture biologique.jpg|thumb|様々な花の蜜源から採れたフランス産ハチミツ。色と質感に違いが見られる]]
ハチミツの使用と生産には長く多様な歴史があり、その始まりは[[:en:Prehistory|先史時代]]に遡る。[[:en:Spain|スペイン]]の[[:en:Cuevas de la Araña|クエバス・デ・ラ・アラーニャ]]にあるいくつかの洞窟壁画には、少なくとも8,000年前に人間がハチミツを採集している様子が描かれている。[[:en:Western honey bee|''Apis mellifera'']]は[[:en:Old World|旧世界]]の[[insect/ja|昆虫]]であるが、[[:en:New World|新世界]]のハリナシミツバチの大規模なメリポニカルチャーは、[[:en:Pre-Columbian era|プレコロンブス期]]以来、[[:en:Maya civilization|マヤ人]]によって行われてきた。

==形成{{Anchor|Formation}}==
[[File:Bee on -calyx 935.jpg|thumb|[[goldenrod/ja|セイタカアワダチソウ]]の[[Calyx (botany)/ja|萼]]に吻を伸ばす[[honey bee/ja|ミツバチ]]]]
[[File:Honey comb.jpg|thumb|[[:en:honeycomb|ハニカム]]に[[:en:Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb|六角柱状]]の[[Beeswax/ja|蜜蝋]]の部屋が見え、そこに[[honey bee/ja|ミツバチ]]がハチミツを貯蔵している]]

===ミツバチによる形成===
ハチミツは、[[nectar/ja|蜜]]や[[honeydew (secretion)/ja|甘露]]を集めたミツバチによって生産される。ミツバチはハチミツの糖分を重宝しており、これを消費して一般的な[[metabolism/ja|代謝活動]]、特に[[:en:forage (honey bee)|採餌]]中の飛翔筋の活動を支え、[[:en:larva|幼虫]]の餌としている。この目的のために、ミツバチは通常の採餌中や、[[:en:overwintering|越冬]]時のような乏しい期間に備えてハチミツを貯蔵する。採餌中、ミツバチは集めた蜜の一部を使って飛翔筋を動かす。集めた蜜の大部分は、直接昆虫を養うために使われるのではなく、[[regurgitation (digestion)/ja|逆流]]、[[Enzyme catalysis/ja|酵素的消化]]、そして最終的にハチミツとしての長期[[Food storage/ja|貯蔵]]のために運命づけられる。寒い季節や他の食物源が乏しい場合、成虫と[[:en:larva|幼虫]]のミツバチは貯蔵されたハチミツを消費する。これは、作られた蜜よりもはるかにエネルギー密度が高い。

巣を離れた採餌バチは、糖分が豊富な蜜や甘露を集める。花から得られる蜜は、通常70〜80%の水分を含み、水分含有量が約18%の完成したハチミツよりもはるかに粘性が低い。アブラムシや他の[[Insect/ja|カメムシ目]]の昆虫から得られる甘露の水分含有量は、通常、それらの昆虫が餌とする樹液に非常に近く、蜜よりもわずかに希釈されていることが多い。ある情報源では、甘露の水分含有量は約89%であると説明されている。蜜であろうと甘露であろうと、ミツバチはこれらのサラサラした液体を[[:en:proboscis|口吻]]を通して吸い込み、その液体はミツバチの蜜胃、つまり「蜜嚢」に送られる。この腔は食物胃のすぐ上に位置し、食物胃は個々のミツバチが自身の栄養のために消費する花粉や糖分を消化する。

''[[Western honey bee/ja|セイヨウミツバチ]]''の蜜胃は約40mgの液体を保持する。これは荷物を積んでいないミツバチの約半分の重さである。この量の蜜を集めるには、千以上の花を訪れる必要がある。蜜が豊富な場合でも、蜜胃を満たすのにミツバチは1時間以上の絶え間ない作業を要することがある。ミツバチの蜜胃に入ると、[[Saliva/ja|唾液]]酵素とミツバチの[[Insect mouthparts#Hypopharynx/ja|下咽頭腺]]からのタンパク質が蜜の中に分泌される。これらの[[Digestive enzyme/ja|物質]]は、[[sucrose/ja|スクロース]]や[[starch/ja|デンプン]]のような[[Sugar/ja|複合糖質]]を[[glucose/ja|ブドウ糖]]や[[fructose/ja|果糖]]のようなより単純な糖に[[Hydrolysis/ja|加水分解]]し始める。このプロセスは、部分的に消化された蜜の水分含有量と酸性度をわずかに上昇させる。

満たされると、採餌バチは巣に戻る。そこで蜜を吐き戻し、巣バチに渡す。巣バチも自身の蜜胃に入った蜜を吐き戻し、[[Mandible (insect mouthpart)/ja|大顎]]の間で繰り返し泡を形成することで、その消化と濃縮を促進する。これらの泡は体積あたりの表面積を大きくし、これによりミツバチは蜜の水分の一部を巣の暖かい空気中に蒸発させる。

巣バチはハチミツ加工グループを形成する。これらのグループは連携して作業し、あるハチが加工された蜜を泡立ててから、精製された液体を他のハチに渡す。製品が貯蔵品質に達するまで、連続的な逆流、消化、蒸発に20分もかかることがある。新しいハチミツはハニカムの部屋に入れられ、蓋はされないままにされる。このハチミツはまだ水分含有量が非常に高く、集められた蜜の濃度にもよるが、最大70%にもなる。この精製の段階では、ハチミツの水分含有量が非常に高いため、どこにでもいる[[yeast/ja|酵母]]の[[spore/ja|胞子]]がその中で[[Asexual reproduction/ja|繁殖]]できる。このプロセスは、放置すると新しいハチミツの糖分を急速に[[Fermentation/ja|消費]]してしまう。これに対抗するため、ミツバチは昆虫としては珍しい能力、すなわち[[Endogeny (biology)/ja|内因性]]の熱発生能力を用いる。

ミツバチは大量の体熱を生成できる数少ない昆虫の一つである。彼らはこの能力を使って、巣の中に一定の周囲温度を作り出す。ハチミツ貯蔵区域の巣の温度は、通常{{convert|35|C|F}}前後である。この温度は、体で熱を生成するか、水分の蒸発によって熱を除去することによって調節される。蒸発は貯蔵されたハチミツから水分を除去し、コロニーから熱を引き出す。ミツバチは羽を使って巣の冷却を制御する。協調的な羽ばたきは、湿ったハチミツ全体に空気を移動させ、水分と熱を排出する。巣の換気は、最終的に過剰な水分と熱を外界に排出する。

蒸発のプロセスは、ハチミツの最終的な水分含有量が15.5%から18%になるまで続く。これにより、糖分は水の[[Solubility/ja#Factors affecting solubility|飽和点]]をはるかに超えて濃縮される。つまり、ハチミツに残るわずかな水分には、同量の水に溶解できるよりもはるかに多くの糖分が溶解しているということである。したがって、ハチミツは、巣の温度であっても、水中の様々な糖の[[Supercooling/ja|過冷却]]溶液である。このような高濃度の糖分は、室温近くで、より低濃度の溶液（この場合は蜜）の蒸発によってのみ達成できる。[[Osmotic pressure/ja|浸透圧]]の理由から、このような高濃度の糖分は微生物の繁殖に極めて不利であり、結果としてすべての[[fermentation (food)/ja|発酵]]は停止する。その後、ミツバチは完成したハチミツの部屋にワックスで蓋をする。これにより、汚染から密閉され、さらなる蒸発が防がれる。

水分濃度が18%を大きく超えない限り、ハチミツは巣の中と[[:en:beekeeper|養蜂家]]による除去後の両方で、無限の貯蔵寿命を持つ。

===By other insects===
ハチミツを生産する[[Eusociality/ja|真社会性昆虫]]はミツバチだけではない。非寄生の[[bumblebee/ja|マルハナバチ]]と[[stingless bee/ja|ハリナシミツバチ]]はすべてハチミツを生産する。南米および中米に生息する''[[Brachygastra lecheguana/ja|Brachygastra lecheguana]]''や''[[Brachygastra mellifica/ja|Brachygastra mellifica]]''などの一部の[[wasp/ja|スズメバチ]]種は、蜜を食べてハチミツを生産することが知られている。''[[Polistes versicolor/ja|Polistes versicolor]]''などの他のスズメバチもハチミツを消費する。彼らは生活環の中盤で、タンパク質が豊富な花粉を食べるのと、はるかに[[:en:Energy density|高密度]]の[[food energy/ja|食物エネルギー]]源であるハチミツを食べるのを交互に行う。

===人間の介入===
人間は、ミツバチの分蜂段階を利用して、いくつかのミツバチ種を[[:en:Domestication|半家畜化]]してきた。分蜂とは、コロニーの現在の巣に拡張する余地がなくなったときに、新しいコロニーを確立する手段である。古い女王は新しい女王に育つ卵を産み、その後、コロニーの半分もの数を率いて新しい巣の場所へ向かう。ミツバチは通常、この目的のために送り出された偵察バチが別の巣に適した場所を発見する前に分蜂する。そのような場所が見つかるまで、分蜂群はしばしば以前の巣の近く、多くは木の枝から固まっているだけである。これらの分蜂群は通常おとなしく、人間による輸送に適している。商業用の[[:en:Langstroth hive|ラングストロフ式巣箱]]のような適切な営巣場所が提供されると、分蜂群は人工的な環境でも容易に新しいコロニーを形成する。これらの半家畜化されたコロニーは、その後、養蜂やメリポニカルチャーを行う人間によって世話される。捕獲されたミツバチは、受粉媒介者が高く評価される果樹園などの農業環境で採餌を促されることが多い。ミツバチが生産するハチミツ、[[Bee pollen/ja|花粉]]、[[Beeswax/ja|蜜蝋]]、[[Plant defense against herbivory/ja|樹脂]]はすべて、様々な用途のために人間によって収穫される。

「半家畜化」という用語が好まれるのは、非常に大規模な農業養蜂場であっても、すべてのミツバチコロニーが、成功した野生コロニーを確立できる分蜂群として、人間の保護下から容易に離れるためである。商業養蜂の努力の多くは、分蜂準備ができている巣に、現在の場所でより多くのハニカムを生産するように説得することに費やされる。これは通常、既存のコロニーの上に空の箱である''[[:en:honey super|ハニースーパー]]''を追加することで、コロニーにより多くの空間を追加することによって行われる。これによりミツバチは通常、分蜂によってコロニーを分割する代わりに、この空きスペースを発展させるように誘引される。

==生産{{Anchor|Production}}==
===採取===
[[File:Sealed Honey in frame.JPG|thumb|蜜が密閉された巣枠]]
[[File:Extractor Beekeeping.jpg|thumb|right|ハニカムからの抽出]]
[[File:Filtering of honey.jpg|thumb|upright|ハニカムからの濾過]]

ハチミツは野生のハチの群れ、または飼育された蜂の巣から採取される。平均して、1つの巣からは年間約65ポンド（約29.5 kg）のハチミツが生産される。野生のハチの巣は、[[honeyguide/ja|ミツオシエ]]という鳥を追うことによって見つけられることがある。

巣からハチミツを安全に採取するために、養蜂家は通常、[[:en:bee smoker|養蜂用燻煙器]]を使ってハチを落ち着かせる。煙は摂食本能（巣の資源を火事から守ろうとする試み）を引き起こし、ハチを攻撃的でなくさせ、ハチがコミュニケーションに使うフェロモンを覆い隠す。ハニカムは巣から取り除かれ、ハチミツは圧搾するか[[:en:honey extractor|ハチミツ抽出器]]を使って抽出される。ハチミツは通常、蜜蝋やその他の破片を取り除くために濾過される。

取り外し可能な巣枠が発明される前は、収穫を行うためにハチの群れ全体を犠牲にすることがよくあった。収穫者は利用可能なすべてのハチミツを取り、翌春に群れ全体を置き換えた。取り外し可能な巣枠の発明以来、飼育の原則により、ほとんどの養蜂家は、蜂の巣にハチミツを残すか、砂糖水や結晶砂糖（しばしば「キャンディボード」の形で）のようなハチミツ代替品を群れに与えることによって、冬を乗り切るのに十分な貯蔵があることを確認している。冬を乗り切るために必要な食料の量は、ハチの種類、およびその地域の冬の長さと厳しさによって異なる。

多くの動物種が野生または家畜のハチミツ源に引き寄せられる。

===保存===
ハチミツは、その組成と化学的性質から、長期保存に適しており、長期保存後でも容易に消化される。ハチミツやハチミツに浸されたものは、何世紀にもわたって保存されてきた。（ただし、エジプトの墓で食用可能なハチミツが発見されたという例はなく、そのような場合はすべて他の物質であるか、化学的痕跡のみであることが証明されている。）保存の鍵は湿気へのアクセスを制限することである。硬化状態のハチミツは、発酵を抑制するのに十分な高い糖度を持っている。湿った空気にさらされると、その[[hydrophilic/ja|親水性]]の特性により、湿気をハチミツの中に引き込み、最終的には発酵が始まる点まで希釈される。

ハチミツの長い[[shelf life/ja|貯蔵寿命]]は、ハチの胃に見られる[[enzyme/ja|酵素]]に起因するとされている。ハチは、以前に摂取した放出された蜜と[[glucose oxidase/ja|グルコースオキシダーゼ]]を混ぜ合わせ、[[gluconic acid/ja|グルコン酸]]と[[hydrogen peroxide/ja|過酸化水素]]という2つの[[byproduct/ja|副産物]]を生成する。これらはハチミツの酸性と細菌増殖の抑制に部分的に関与している。

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=== Adulteration ===
Honey is sometimes [[Adulterant|adulterated]] by the addition of other sugars, syrups, or compounds to change its flavor or viscosity, reduce cost, or increase the fructose content to inhibit [[crystallization]]. Honey has been adulterated since ancient times, when honey was sometimes blended with plant syrups such as [[Maple syrup|maple]], [[Birch syrup|birch]], or [[Sorghum syrup|sorghum]] and sold to customers as pure honey. Sometimes crystallized honey was mixed with flour or other fillers, hiding the adulteration from buyers until the honey was liquefied. In modern times, the most common adulterant became clear, almost-flavorless corn syrup; the adulterated mixture can be very difficult to distinguish from pure honey.
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According to the [[Codex Alimentarius]] of the United Nations, any product labeled as "honey" or "pure honey" must not be adulterated, although labeling laws differ between countries. In the United States, according to the National Honey Board, "Ensuring honey authenticity is one of the great challenges facing the honey industry today. Over the past half century, a number of honey testing methods have been developed to detect food fraud. To date, there is no single universal analytical method available which is capable of detecting all types of adulteration with adequate sensitivity."
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[[Isotope ratio mass spectrometry]] can be used to detect addition of [[corn syrup]] and [[cane sugar]] by the carbon [[isotopic signature]]. Addition of sugars originating from corn or sugar cane ([[C4 carbon fixation|C4 plants]], unlike the plants used by bees, and also [[sugar beet]], which are predominantly [[C3 carbon fixation|C3 plants]]) skews the isotopic ratio of sugars present in honey, but does not influence the isotopic ratio of proteins. In an unadulterated honey, the carbon isotopic ratios of sugars and proteins should match. Levels as low as 7% of addition can be detected.
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===Production ===
{| class="wikitable floatright" 
|+ Honey production <br>{{small|2023, tonnes}}
|-
|{{CHN}} ||463,500
|-
|{{TUR}} ||114,886
|-
|{{ETH}} ||84,591
|-
|{{IRN}} ||80,389
|-
|{{ARG}} ||73,395
|-
|{{USA}} ||62,855
|-
|'''World''' ||'''1,893,805'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]}}
|}
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In 2023, world production of honey was 1.9{{nbsp}}million [[tonne]]s, led by China with 24% of the total, and [[Turkey]], [[Ethiopia]], and [[Iran]] as secondary producers (table).
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== Modern uses ==
=== Food ===
{{Main|Mellivory}}
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Over its history as a food, the main uses of honey are in cooking, baking, desserts, as a spread on bread, as an addition to various beverages such as tea, and as a sweetener in some commercial beverages.
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Due to its energy density, honey is an important food for virtually all [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures in warm climates, with the [[Hadza people]] ranking honey as their favorite food. [[Honey hunting|Honey hunters]] in Africa have a [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] relationship with certain species of [[honeyguide]] birds.
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=== Fermentation ===
Possibly the world's oldest [[fermented beverage]], dating from 9,000 years ago, [[mead]] ("honey wine") is the alcoholic product made by adding [[yeast]] to honey-water [[must]] and fermenting it for weeks or months. The yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' is commonly used in modern mead production.
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Mead varieties include drinks called [[metheglin]] (with spices or herbs), [[melomel]] (with fruit juices, such as grape, specifically called [[pyment]]), [[hippocras]] (with [[cinnamon]]), and sack mead (high concentration of honey), many of which have been developed as commercial products numbering in the hundreds in the United States. Honey is also used to make mead [[beer]], called "braggot".
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== Physical and chemical properties ==
[[File:Crystallized honey with close-up.jpg|thumb|Crystallized honey: The inset shows a close-up of the honey, showing the individual glucose grains in the fructose mixture.]]
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The physical properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars it contains. Fresh honey is a [[supersaturation|supersaturated]] liquid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures. At room temperature, honey is a [[supercooling|supercooled]] liquid, in which the glucose precipitates into solid granules. This forms a semisolid solution of [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitated]] glucose [[crystal]]s in a solution of fructose and other ingredients.
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The [[density]] of honey typically ranges between 1.38 and 1.45&nbsp;kg/L at 20&nbsp;°C.
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=== Phase transitions ===
The melting point of crystallized honey is between {{convert|40|and|50|C|F}}, depending on its composition. Below this temperature, honey can be either in a [[metastable]] state, meaning that it will not crystallize until a [[seed crystal]] is added, or, more often, it is in a "labile" state, being saturated with enough sugars to crystallize spontaneously. The rate of crystallization is affected by many factors, but the primary factor is the ratio of the main sugars: fructose to glucose. Honeys that are supersaturated with a very high percentage of glucose, such as [[brassica]] honey, crystallize almost immediately after harvesting, while honeys with a low percentage of glucose, such as chestnut or [[Tupelo (tree)|tupelo]] honey, do not crystallize. Some types of honey may produce few but very large crystals, while others produce many small crystals.
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Crystallization is also affected by water content, because a high percentage of water inhibits crystallization, as does a high [[dextrin]] content. Temperature also affects the rate of crystallization, with the fastest growth occurring between {{convert|13|and|17|C|F}}. Crystal nuclei (seeds) tend to form more readily if the honey is disturbed, by stirring, shaking, or agitating, rather than if left at rest. However, the [[nucleation]] of microscopic seed-crystals is greatest between {{convert|5|and|8|C|F}}. Therefore, larger but fewer crystals tend to form at higher temperatures, while smaller but more-numerous crystals usually form at lower temperatures. Below 5&nbsp;°C, the honey will not crystallize, thus the original texture and flavor can be preserved indefinitely.
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Honey is a supercooled liquid when stored below its melting point, as is normal. At very low temperatures, honey does not freeze solid; rather its viscosity increases. Like most [[viscous liquid]]s, the honey becomes thick and sluggish with decreasing temperature. At {{convert|-20|C|F}}, honey may appear or even feel solid, but it continues to flow at very low rates. Honey has a [[glass transition]] between {{convert|-42|and|-51|C|F}}. Below this temperature, honey enters a [[glass]]y state and becomes an [[amorphous solid]] (noncrystalline).
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=== Rheology ===
[[File:Honey-miel.jpg|thumb|right|Pouring raw honey. The sheet-like appearance of the flow is the result of high viscosity and low surface tension, contributing to the stickiness of honey.]]
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The [[viscosity]] of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the water percentage, the more easily honey [[Fluid dynamics|flows]]. Above its melting point, however, water has little effect on viscosity. Aside from water content, the composition of most types of honey also has little effect on viscosity. At {{convert|25|C|F}}, honey with 14% water content generally has a viscosity around 400&nbsp;[[Poise (unit)|poise]], while a honey containing 20% water has a viscosity around 20&nbsp;poise. Viscosity increases very slowly with moderate cooling; a honey containing 16% water, at {{convert|70|C|F}}, has a viscosity around 2 poise, while at {{convert|30|C|F}}, the viscosity is around 70 poise. With further cooling, the increase in viscosity is more rapid, reaching 600 poise at around {{convert|14|C|F}}. However, while honey is viscous, it has low [[surface tension]] of 50–60 mJ/m<sup>2</sup>, making its [[wettability]] similar to water, [[glycerin]], or most other liquids. The high viscosity and wettability of honey cause [[Adhesion|stickiness]], which is a time-dependent process in supercooled liquids between the glass-transition temperature (T<sub>g</sub>) and the crystalline-melting temperature.
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Most types of honey are [[Newtonian liquid]]s, but a few types have [[Non-Newtonian fluid|non-Newtonian]] viscous properties. Honeys from [[Calluna vulgaris|heather]] or [[mānuka]] display [[thixotropic]] properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but liquefy when stirred.
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=== Electrical and optical properties ===
Because honey contains [[electrolyte]]s, in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of [[electrical conductivity]]. Measurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms of [[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]] content.
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The effect honey has on light is useful for determining the type and quality. Variations in its water content alter its [[refractive index]]. Water content can easily be measured with a [[refractometer]]. Typically, the refractive index for honey ranges from 1.504 at 13% water content to 1.474 at 25%. Honey also has an effect on [[polarized light]], in that it rotates the polarization plane. The fructose gives a negative rotation, while the glucose gives a positive one. The overall rotation can be used to measure the ratio of the mixture. Honey is generally pale yellow and dark brown in color, but other colors can occur, depending on the sugar source. Bee colonies that forage on [[Kudzu]] ([[Pueraria montana var. lobata|''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata'']]) flowers, for example, produce honey that varies in color from red to purple.
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=== Hygroscopy and fermentation ===
Honey has the ability to absorb moisture directly from the air, a phenomenon called [[hygroscopy]]. The amount of water the honey absorbs is dependent on the relative humidity of the air. Because honey contains yeast, this hygroscopic nature requires that honey be stored in sealed containers to prevent fermentation, which usually begins if the honey's water content rises much above 25%. Honey tends to absorb more water in this manner than the individual sugars allow on their own, which may be due to other ingredients it contains.
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Fermentation of honey usually occurs after crystallization, because without the glucose, the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often [[pasteurized]], to kill any yeast, by heating it above {{convert|70|C|F}}.
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=== Thermal characteristics ===
[[File:Creamed honey Maillard reaction after aging.jpg|thumb|Creamed honey: the honey on the left is fresh, and the honey on the right has been aged at room temperature for two years. The Maillard reaction produces considerable differences in the color and flavor of the aged honey, which remains edible.]]
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Like all sugar compounds, honey [[caramelize]]s if heated sufficiently, becoming darker in color, and eventually burns. However, honey contains fructose, which caramelizes at lower temperatures than glucose. The temperature at which caramelization begins varies, depending on the composition, but is typically between {{convert|70|and|110|C|F}}. Honey also contains acids, which act as [[catalyst]]s for caramelization. The specific types of acids and their amounts play a primary role in determining the exact temperature. Of these acids, the amino acids, which occur in very small amounts, play an important role in the darkening of honey. The amino acids form darkened compounds called [[melanoidin]]s, during a [[Maillard reaction]]. The Maillard reaction occurs slowly at room temperature, taking from a few to several months to show visible darkening, but speeds up dramatically with increasing temperatures. However, the reaction can also be slowed by storing the honey at colder temperatures.
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Unlike many other liquids, honey has very poor [[thermal conductivity]] of 0.5 W/(m⋅K) at 13% water content (compared to 401 W/(m⋅K) of [[copper]]), taking a long time to reach [[thermal equilibrium]]. Due to its high [[kinematic viscosity]] honey does not transfer heat through momentum diffusion ([[convection]]) but rather through [[Heat conduction|thermal diffusion]] (more like a solid), so melting crystallized honey can easily result in localized caramelization if the heat source is too hot or not evenly distributed. However, honey takes substantially longer to liquefy when just above the melting point than at elevated temperatures. Melting {{Cvt|20|kg}} of crystallized honey at {{convert|40|C|F}} can take up to 24 hours, while {{Cvt|50|kg}} may take twice as long. These times can be cut nearly in half by heating at {{convert|50|C|F}}; however, many of the minor substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor, aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest temperature and for the shortest time possible.
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=== Acid content and flavor effects ===
The average [[pH]] of honey is 3.9, but can range from 3.4 to 6.1. Honey contains many kinds of acids, both [[organic acid|organic]] and [[amino acid|amino]]. However, the different types and their amounts vary considerably, depending on the type of honey. These acids may be [[aromaticity|aromatic]] or [[Aliphatic compound#Aliphatic acids|aliphatic]] (nonaromatic). The aliphatic acids contribute greatly to the flavor of honey by interacting with the flavors of other ingredients.
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Organic acids comprise most of the acids in honey, accounting for 0.17–1.17% of the mixture, with [[gluconic acid]] formed by the actions of [[glucose oxidase]] as the most prevalent. Minor amounts of other organic acids are present, consisting of [[formic acid|formic]], [[acetic acid|acetic]], [[butyric acid|butyric]], [[citric acid|citric]], [[lactic acid|lactic]], [[malic acid|malic]], [[pyroglutamic acid|pyroglutamic]], [[propionic acid|propionic]], [[valeric acid|valeric]], [[capronic acid|capronic]], [[palmitic acid|palmitic]], and [[succinic acid|succinic]], among many others.
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=== Volatile organic compounds ===
Individual honeys from different plant sources contain over 100 [[volatile organic compound]]s (VOCs), which play a primary role in determining honey [[Flavor (taste)|flavors]] and [[odor|aromas]].VOCs are carbon-based compounds that readily [[vaporization|vaporize]] into the air, providing aroma, including the scents of flowers, essential oils, or ripening fruit. The typical chemical families of VOCs found in honey include [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[aldehyde]]s, [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohols]], [[ketone]]s, [[ester]]s, [[acid]]s, [[benzene]]s, [[furan]]s, [[pyran]]s, [[norisoprenoid]]s, and [[terpene]]s, among many others and their derivatives. The specific VOCs and their amounts vary considerably between different types of honey obtained by bees foraging on different plant sources. By example, when comparing the mixture of VOCs in different honeys in one review, [[longan]] honey had a higher amount of volatiles (48 VOCs), while [[sunflower]] honey had the lowest number of volatiles (8 VOCs).
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VOCs are primarily introduced into the honey from the nectar, where they are excreted by the flowers imparting individual scents. The specific types and concentrations of certain VOCs can be used to determine the type of flora used to produce monofloral honeys. The specific geography, soil composition and acidity used to grow the flora also have an effect on honey aroma properties, such as a "fruity" or "grassy" aroma from longan honey, or a "waxy" aroma from sunflower honey. Dominant VOCs in one study were [[linalool]] [[oxide]], trans-linalool oxide, 2-[[phenylacetaldehyde]], [[benzyl]] [[ethanol]], [[isophorone]], and [[methyl]] [[nonanoate]].
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VOCs can also be introduced from the bodies of the bees, be produced by the enzymatic actions of digestion, or from chemical reactions that occur between different substances within the honey during storage, and therefore may change, increase, or decrease over long periods of time. VOCs may be produced, altered, or greatly affected by temperature and processing. Some VOCs are heat labile, and are destroyed at elevated temperatures, while others can be created during non-enzymatic reactions, such as the [[Maillard reaction]]. VOCs are responsible for nearly all of the aroma produced by a honey, which may be described as "sweet", "flowery", "citrus", "almond" or "rancid", among other terms. In addition, VOCs play a large role in determining the specific flavor of the honey, both through the aromas and flavor. VOCs from honeys in different geographic regions can be used as floral markers of those regions, and as markers of the bees that foraged the nectars.
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== Classification ==
Honey is classified by its source (floral or not), and divisions are made according to the packaging and processing used. [[Regional honeys]] are also identified. In the US, honey is also graded on its color and optical density by [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] standards, graded on the Pfund scale, which ranges from 0 for "water white" honey to more than 114 for "dark amber" honey.
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=== Plant source ===
Generally, honey is classified by the floral source of the nectar from which it was made. Honeys can be from specific types of flower nectars or can be blended after collection. The pollen in honey is traceable to floral source and therefore region of origin. The [[Rheology|rheological]] and [[Melissopalynology|melissopalynological]] properties of honey can be used to identify the major plant nectar source used in its production.
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==== Monofloral ====
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[[Monofloral honey]] is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Monofloral honeys have distinctive flavors and colors because of differences between their principal [[nectar source]]s.> To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access, as far as possible, to only one type of flower. In practice, a small proportion of any monofloral honey will be from other flower types. Typical examples of North American monofloral honeys are [[clover]], [[orange blossom]], [[Salvia|sage]], [[Tupelo (tree)|tupelo]], [[buckwheat]], [[fireweed]], [[mesquite]], [[sourwood]], [[cherry]], and [[blueberry]]. Some typical European examples include [[thyme]], [[thistle]], [[Ericaceae|heather]], [[acacia]], [[dandelion]], [[sunflower]], [[lavender]], [[honeysuckle]], and varieties from [[Tilia|lime]] and [[chestnut]] trees. In [[North Africa]] (e.g. Egypt), examples include clover, [[cotton]], and [[citrus]] (mainly orange blossoms). The unique flora of Australia yields a number of distinctive honeys, with some of the most popular being [[yellow box]], [[blue gum]], [[ironbark]], bush [[List of Eucalyptus species|mallee]], Tasmanian [[Eucryphia lucida|leatherwood]], and [[macadamia]].
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==== Polyfloral ====
Polyfloral honey, also known as wildflower honey, is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers. The taste may vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavor can be more or less intense, depending on which flowers are blooming.
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==== Honeydew honey ====
Honeydew honey is made from bees taking direct secretions from trees such as [[Pinus|pine]], [[Abies|fir]], [[Castanea|chestnut]], and [[Quercus|oak]] or primarily [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]], the sweet secretions of [[aphid]]s or other plant-sap-sucking insects, to produce honey rather than from [[nectar]]. This honey has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light floral honeys, thus causing [[Diseases of the honey bee#Dysentery|dysentery to the bees]]. Honeydew honey has a stronger and less sweet flavor than nectar-based honey, and European countries have been the primary market for honeydew honey. In Greece, [[pine honey]], a type of honeydew honey, constitutes 60–65% of honey production.
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=== Classification by packaging and processing ===
[[File:Texas State Fair honey.jpg|thumb|A variety of honey flavors and container sizes and styles from the 2008 [[Texas State Fair]]]]
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Generally, honey is bottled in its familiar liquid form, but it is sold in other forms, and can be subjected to a variety of processing methods.
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* '''Crystallized honey''' occurs when some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. It is also called "granulated honey" or "candied honey". Honey that has crystallized (or is commercially purchased crystallized) can be returned to a liquid state by warming. Despite a common misconception, honey crystallizing does not mean it has expired.
* '''Pasteurized honey''' has been heated in a [[pasteurization]] process which requires temperatures of {{convert|161|F|C|order=flip}} or higher. Pasteurization destroys yeast cells. It also liquefies any microcrystals in the honey, which delays the onset of visible crystallization. However, excessive heat exposure also results in product deterioration, as it increases the level of [[hydroxymethylfurfural]] (HMF) and reduces enzyme (e.g. diastase) activity. Heat also darkens the honey, and affects taste and fragrance.
* '''Raw honey''' is as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling, or straining, without adding heat (although some honey that has been "minimally processed" is often labeled as raw honey). Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax.
* '''Strained honey''' has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material (pieces of wax, [[propolis]], other defects) without removing pollen, minerals, or enzymes.
* '''Filtered honey''' of any type has been filtered to the extent that all or most of the fine particles, pollen grains, air bubbles, or other materials normally found in suspension, have been removed. The process typically heats honey to {{convert|150|–|170|F|C|order=flip}} to more easily pass through the filter. Filtered honey is very clear and will not crystallize as quickly, making it preferred by supermarkets. The most common method involves the addition of [[diatomaceous earth]] to honey that is heated to {{convert|140|F|C|order=flip}} and passed through filter paper or canvas until a cake of diatomaceous earth builds up on the filter.
* '''Ultrasonicated honey''' has been processed by [[Sonication|ultrasonication]], a nonthermal processing alternative for honey. When honey is exposed to ultrasonication, most of the yeast cells are destroyed. Those cells that survive sonication generally lose their ability to grow, which reduces the rate of honey fermentation substantially. Ultrasonication also eliminates existing crystals and inhibits further crystallization in honey. Ultrasonically aided liquefaction can work at substantially lower temperatures around {{convert|95|F|C|order=flip}} and can reduce liquefaction time to less than 30 seconds.
* '''[[Creamed honey]]''', also called whipped honey, spun honey, churned honey, honey fondant, and, in the UK, set honey, has been processed to control crystallization. Creamed honey contains a large number of small crystals, which prevent the formation of larger crystals that can occur in unprocessed honey. The processing also produces a honey with a smooth, spreadable consistency.
* '''Dried honey''' has the moisture extracted from liquid honey to create completely solid, nonsticky granules. This process may or may not include the use of drying and [[anticaking agent]]s. Dried honey is used in baked goods, and to garnish desserts.
* '''[[Comb honey]]''' is still in the honey bees' wax comb. It is traditionally collected using standard wooden [[Hive frame|frames]] in [[honey super]]s. The frames are collected and the comb is cut out in chunks before packaging. As an alternative to this labor-intensive method, plastic rings or cartridges can be used that do not require manual cutting of the comb, and speed packaging. Comb honey harvested in the traditional manner is also referred to as "cut-comb honey".
* '''Chunk honey''' is packed in wide-mouthed containers; it consists of one or more pieces of comb honey immersed in extracted liquid honey.
* '''Honey decoctions''' are made from honey or honey byproducts which have been dissolved in water, then reduced (usually by means of boiling). Other ingredients may then be added. (For example, [[abbamele]] has added citrus.) The resulting product may be similar to [[molasses]].
* '''Baker's honey''' is outside the normal specification for honey, due to a "foreign" taste or odor, or because it has begun to ferment or has been overheated. It is generally used as an ingredient in food processing. Additional requirements exist for labeling baker's honey, including that it may not be sold labeled simply as "honey".
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=== Grading ===
{{See also|Food grading}}
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Countries have differing standards for grading honey.
In the US, honey grading is performed voluntarily based upon [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] standards. USDA offers inspection and grading "as on-line (in-plant) or lot inspection...upon application, on a fee-for-service basis." Honey is graded based upon a number of factors, including water content, flavor and aroma, absence of defects, and clarity. Honey is also classified by color, though it is not a factor in the grading scale.
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The USDA honey grade scale is:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grade
! Soluble solids
! width=30% | Flavor and aroma
! width=30% | Absence of defects
! width=30% | Clarity
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
! A
|≥ 81.4%
|
;Good :"has a good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is free from caramelized flavor or objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source"
|
;Practically free :"contains practically no defects that affect the appearance or edibility of the product"
|
;Clear :"may contain air bubbles which do not materially affect the appearance of the product and may contain a trace of pollen grains or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not affect the appearance of the product"
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
! B
|≥ 81.4%
|
;Reasonably good :"has a reasonably good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a reasonably good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is practically free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source"
|
;Reasonably free :"may contain defects which do not materially affect the appearance or edibility of the product"
|
;Reasonably clear :"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not materially affect the appearance of the product"
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
! C
|≥ 80.0%
|
;Fairly good :"has a fairly good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a fairly good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is reasonably free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source"
|
;Fairly free :"may contain defects which do not seriously affect the appearance or edibility of the product"
|
;Fairly clear :"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not seriously affect the appearance of the product"
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
! Substandard
|{{nowrap|'''Fails Grade C'''}}
|'''Fails Grade C'''
|'''Fails Grade C'''
|'''Fails Grade C'''
|}
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India certifies honey grades based on additional factors, such as the Fiehe's test, and other empirical measurements.
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=== Indicators of quality ===
High-quality honey can be distinguished by fragrance, taste, and consistency. Ripe, freshly collected, high-quality honey at {{convert|20|°C|°F|abbr=on}} should flow from a knife in a straight stream, without breaking into separate drops. After falling down, the honey should form a bead. The honey, when poured, should form small, temporary layers that disappear fairly quickly, indicating high viscosity. If not, it indicates honey with excessive water content of over 20%, not suitable for long-term preservation.
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In jars, fresh honey should appear as a pure, consistent fluid, and should not set in layers. Within a few weeks to a few months of extraction, many varieties of honey crystallize into a cream-colored solid. Some varieties of honey, including tupelo, acacia, and sage, crystallize less regularly. Honey may be heated during bottling at temperatures of {{convert|40|–|49|C|F}} to delay or inhibit crystallization. Overheating is indicated by change in enzyme levels, for instance, [[diastase]] activity, which can be determined with the Schade or the [[Phadebas]] methods. A fluffy film on the surface of the honey (like a white foam), or marble-colored or white-spotted crystallization on a container's sides, is formed by air bubbles trapped during the bottling process.
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A 2008 Italian study determined that [[nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy]] can be used to distinguish between different honey types, and can be used to pinpoint the area where it was produced. Researchers were able to identify differences in acacia and polyfloral honeys by the differing proportions of fructose and sucrose, as well as differing levels of aromatic [[amino acid]]s [[phenylalanine]] and [[tyrosine]]. This ability allows greater ease of selecting compatible stocks.
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== Nutrition ==
{{nutritional value|name=Honey|kJ=1270|protein=0.3 g|fat=0 g|carbs=82 g|sugars=82 g|fructose=41 g|glucose=36 g|fiber=0.2 g| calcium_mg=6|sodium_mg=4 |potassium_mg=52|vitC_mg=0.5| riboflavin_mg=0.038|niacin_mg=0.121|pantothenic_mg=0.068|folate_ug=2|iron_mg=0.42|magnesium_mg=2|phosphorus_mg=4|zinc_mg=0.22|vitB6_mg=0.024|water=17 g|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169640/nutrients Full Link to USDA Database entry]}}
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Honey is 17% water and 82% [[carbohydrate]]s, and has negligible content of [[dietary fiber]] and [[protein]], while containing no [[fat]] (table). Honey supplies no [[micronutrient]]s in significant content (table). In a reference amount of {{cvt|100|g}}, honey supplies 300 [[calorie]]s (table).
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=== Sugar profile ===
Honey is mainly [[fructose]] (41% of sugars) and [[glucose]] (36%) (table), with remaining sugars including [[galactose]], [[maltose]], and [[sucrose]], each supplying 3% or less of total sugars (table, USDA reference).
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The [[glycemic index]] of honey has a possible range of 31-78, depending on the variety.
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The specific composition, color, aroma, and flavor of any batch of honey depend on the flowers foraged by bees that produced the honey.
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== Medical use and research ==
{{See also|Apitherapy}}
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=== Wounds and burns ===
Honey is a [[folk treatment]] for burns and other skin injuries. Preliminary evidence suggests that it aids in the healing of partial thickness burns 4–5 days faster than other dressings, and moderate evidence suggests that post-operative infections treated with honey heal faster and with fewer adverse events than with [[antiseptic]] and [[gauze]]. The evidence for the use of honey in various other wound treatments is of low quality, and firm conclusions cannot be drawn. Evidence does not support the use of honey-based products for the treatment of [[venous ulcer|venous stasis ulcers]] or [[ingrown toenail]]. Several medical-grade honey products have been approved by the [[United States|US]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] for use in treating minor wounds and burns.
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=== Antibiotic ===
Honey has long been used as a [[topical antibiotic]] by practitioners of [[traditional medicine|traditional]] and [[herbal medicine]]. Honey's antibacterial effects were first demonstrated by the Dutch scientist Bernardus Adrianus van Ketel in 1892. Since then, numerous studies have shown that honey has broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against [[Gram-positive bacteria|gram-positive]] and [[Gram-negative bacteria|gram-negative]] bacteria, although potency varies widely between different honeys. Due to the proliferation of [[List of antibiotic-resistant bacteria|antibiotic-resistant bacteria]] in the last few decades, there has been renewed interest in researching the antibacterial properties of honey. Components of honey under preliminary research for potential antibiotic use include [[methylglyoxal]], [[hydrogen peroxide]], and royalisin (also called defensin-1).
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=== Cough ===
For chronic and acute coughs, a [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review found no strong evidence for or against the use of honey. For treating children, the systematic review concluded with moderate to low evidence that honey helps more than no treatment, [[diphenhydramine]], and [[placebo]] at giving relief from coughing. Honey does not appear to work better than [[dextromethorphan]] at relieving coughing in children. Other reviews have also supported the use of honey for treating children.
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The UK [[Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency]] recommends avoiding giving [[over-the-counter]] cough and [[common cold]] medication to children under six, and suggests "a homemade remedy containing honey and lemon is likely to be just as useful and safer to take", but warns that honey should not be given to babies because of the risk of infant [[botulism]]. The World Health Organization recommends honey as a treatment for coughs and sore throats, including for children, stating that no reason exists to believe it is less effective than a commercial remedy.
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=== Other ===
The use of honey has been recommended as a temporary intervention for known or suspected [[button cell]] battery ingestions to reduce the risk and severity of injury to the [[esophagus]] caused by the battery prior to its removal.
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There is no evidence that honey is beneficial for treating [[cancer]], although honey may be useful for controlling [[side effect]]s of [[radiation therapy]] or [[chemotherapy]] used to treat cancer.
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Consumption is sometimes advocated as a treatment for [[seasonal allergies]] due to [[pollen]], but scientific evidence to support the claim is inconclusive. Honey is generally considered ineffective for the treatment of [[allergic conjunctivitis]].
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The majority of calories in honey are from fructose. When consumed in addition to a normal diet, fructose causes significant weight gain, but when fructose was substituted for other carbohydrates of equal energy value there was no effect on body weight.
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Honey has a mild laxative effect which has been noted as being helpful in alleviating constipation and bloating.
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=== Health hazards ===
Honey is generally safe when taken in typical food amounts, but it may have various, potential [[adverse effect]]s or [[drug interaction|interactions]] in combination with excessive consumption, existing [[disease]] conditions, or [[drug]]s. Included among these are mild reactions to high intake, such as [[anxiety (mood)|anxiety]], [[insomnia]], or [[hyperactivity]] in about 10% of children, according to one study. No symptoms of anxiety, insomnia, or hyperactivity were detected with honey consumption compared to [[placebo]], according to another study. Honey consumption may interact adversely with existing [[allergy|allergies]], high [[blood sugar]] levels (as in [[diabetes]]), or [[anticoagulant]]s used to control [[bleeding]], among other [[clinical medicine|clinical]] conditions.
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People who have a [[immunocompromised|weakened immune system]] may be at risk of bacterial or fungal infection from eating honey.
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==== Botulism ====
Infants can develop botulism after consuming honey contaminated with ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' endospores.
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Infantile botulism shows geographical variation. In the UK, only six cases were reported between 1976 and 2006, yet the US has much higher rates: 1.9 per 100,000 live births, 47.2% of which are in California. While the risk honey poses to infant health is small, taking the risk is not recommended until after one year of age, and then giving honey is considered safe.
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==== Toxic honey ====
{{Main|Mad honey|Bees and toxic chemicals#Toxic honey}}
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[[Mad honey disease|Mad honey intoxication]] is a result of eating honey containing [[grayanotoxin]]s. Honey produced from flowers of [[rhododendron]]s, [[Kalmia latifolia|mountain laurels]], [[Kalmia angustifolia|sheep laurel]], and [[azalea]]s may cause honey intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration, nausea, and vomiting. Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm irregularities, and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death. According to the FDA, honey intoxication is more likely when using "natural" unprocessed honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives because commercial processing, which pools of honey from numerous sources, dilutes the toxins.
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Toxic honey may also result when bees are proximate to [[Tutu (plant)|tutu]] bushes (''Coriaria arborea'') and the vine hopper insect (''[[Scolypopa australis]]''). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison [[Tutin (toxin)|tutin]] into honey. Only a few areas in New Zealand (the [[Coromandel Peninsula]], Eastern [[Bay of Plenty Region]] and the [[Marlborough Sounds]]) frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma, and violent convulsions. To reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand. Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=on|frac=2}} of their apiary. Intoxication is rarely dangerous.
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=== Folk medicine ===
In [[myth]]s and [[folk medicine]], honey was used both orally and topically to treat various ailments including [[gastric]] disturbances, [[ulcer]]s, [[skin]] [[wound]]s, and skin [[burn]]s by ancient Greeks and Egyptians, and in [[Ayurveda]] and [[traditional Chinese medicine]].
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== History ==
[[File:Cueva arana.svg|thumb|upright=0.68|Honey seeker depicted in an 8000-year-old cave painting at [[Cuevas de la Araña en Bicorp|Coves de L'Aranya, Bicorp]] in València]]
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Honey collection is an ancient activity, long preceding the honey bee's domestication; this traditional practice is known as [[honey hunting]]. A [[Mesolithic]] rock painting in a cave in [[Valencian Community|Valencia]], Spain, dating back at least 8,000 years, depicts two honey foragers collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild bees' nest. The figures are depicted carrying baskets or gourds, and using a ladder or series of ropes to reach the nest. Humans followed the [[greater honeyguide]] bird to wild beehives; this behavior may have evolved with early hominids. The oldest known honey remains were found in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] during the construction of the [[Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline]]: archaeologists found honey remains on the inner surface of clay vessels unearthed in an ancient tomb, dating back between 4,700 and 5,500 years. In ancient Georgia, several types of honey were buried with a person for journeys into the afterlife, including linden, berry, and meadow-flower varieties.
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The first written records of beekeeping are from [[ancient Egypt]], where honey was used to sweeten cakes, biscuits, and other foods and as a base for [[unguents]] in Egyptian [[hieroglyphs]]. The dead were often buried in or with honey in Egypt, [[Ancient Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] and other regions. Bees were kept at temples to produce honey for temple offerings, mummification and other uses.
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In southern [[Illyria]] (present day [[Albania]]), the Iron Age [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] tribe of the [[Abroi]] were known for preparing [[mead]], a wine from honey, as documented by [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] in the 6th century BCE.
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In [[ancient Greece]], honey was produced from the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] to the [[Hellenistic period]]s. In 594&nbsp;BCE, beekeeping around [[Athens]] was so widespread that [[Solon]] passed a law about it: "He who sets up hives of bees must put them {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=off|disp=sqbr|sigfig=1}} away from those already installed by another". Greek archaeological excavations of pottery located ancient hives. According to [[Columella]], Greek beekeepers of the Hellenistic period did not hesitate to move their hives over rather long distances to maximize production, taking advantage of the different vegetative cycles in different regions. The spiritual and supposed therapeutic use of honey in [[ancient India]] was documented in both the [[Vedas]] and the [[Ayurveda]] texts.
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== Religious significance ==
In [[ancient Greek religion]], the food of [[Zeus]] and the twelve [[Twelve Olympians|Gods of Olympus]] was honey in the form of nectar and [[ambrosia]].
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In the [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[Promised Land]] (Canaan, the Land of Israel) is described 16 times as "the [[Exodus 3|land of milk and honey]]" as a metaphor for its bounty. Of the 55 times the word "honey" appears in the Hebrew Bible, 16 are part of the expression "the land of milk and honey", and only twice is "honey" explicitly associated with bees, both being related to wild bees. Modern biblical researchers long considered that the original Hebrew word used in the Bible, (דבש, ''devash)'', refers to the [[Date honey|sweet syrup]] produced from [[fig]]s or [[Phoenix dactylifera|dates]], because the domestication of the honey bee was completely undocumented through archaeology anywhere in the [[ancient Near East]] (excluding Egypt) at the time associated with the earlier biblical narratives (books of [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], [[Books of Kings|Kings]], etc.). In 2005, however, an apiary dating from the 10th century BC was found in [[Tel Rehov]], Israel that contained 100 hives, estimated to produce half a ton of honey annually. This was, as of 2007, the only such finding made by archaeologists in the entire ancient Near East region, and it opens the possibility that biblical honey was indeed bee honey.
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[[File:May_you_all_have_a_sweet_year_(365-271)_(6194230350).jpg|thumb|In [[Judaism]], honey symbolizes the sweetness of the New Year, ''[[Rosh Hashanah]]'', and is traditionally eaten with apple slices.]]
In Jewish tradition, honey is a symbol for the new year, ''[[Rosh Hashanah]]''. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten to bring a sweet new year. Some ''Rosh Hashanah'' greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year. Pure honey is considered [[Kashrut|kosher]] (permitted to be eaten by religious Jews), though it is produced by a flying insect, a non-kosher creature; eating other products of non-kosher animals is forbidden. It belongs among the ''parve'' (neutral) foods, containing neither meat nor dairy products and allowed to be eaten together with either.
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[[Early Christianity|Early Christians]] used honey as a symbol of spiritual perfection in christening ceremonies.
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In Islam, an entire chapter ([[Surah]]) in the [[Quran]] is called ''[[an-Nahl]]'' (the Bees). According to his teachings (''[[hadith]]''), [[Muhammad]] strongly recommended [[Prophetic medicine|honey for healing purposes]].The Quran promotes honey as a nutritious and healthy food, saying:
{{blockquote|And thy Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's) habitations; Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find with skill the spacious paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colours, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a Sign for those who give thought.}}
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In Hinduism, honey (''[[Madhu]]'') is one of the five elixirs of life (''[[Panchamrita]]''). In temples, honey is poured over the deities in a ritual called ''Madhu [[abhisheka]]''. The ''Vedas'' and other ancient literature mention the use of honey as a great medicinal and health food.
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In Buddhism, honey plays an important role in the festival of ''[[Madhu Purnima]]'', celebrated in India and Bangladesh. The day commemorates [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha's]] making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. According to legend, while he was there a [[Old World monkey|monkey]] brought him honey to eat. On ''Madhu Purnima'', Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to [[Buddhist monasticism|monks]]. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in [[Buddhist art]].
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==大衆文化において{{Anchor|Popular culture}}==
ハチミツは特に[[:en:Winnie-the-Pooh|クマのプーさん]]や[[:en:Bamse|バンゼ]]の「雷ハチミツ」と関連付けられている。

== 関連項目 ==
{{Portal|Food}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Bee pollen/ja]]
* [[Wikipedia:Honey hunting|ハニーハンティング]]
* [[List of spreads/ja]]
* [[Mellivory/ja]]
* ''[[:en:More than Honey|モア・ザン・ハニー]]''{{nsmdns}}現在のミツバチと養蜂の現状に関する2012年のスイスのドキュメンタリー映画
* [[Wikipedia:National Honey Show|ナショナルハニーショー]]
* [[Royal jelly/ja]]
{{div col end}}


== 外部リンク ==
{{sister project links|Honey|collapsible=true|c=Category:Honey}}
* [https://www.fao.org/3/y5110e/y5110e00.htm Beekeeping and Sustainable Livelihoods] (2004), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

{{Sugar/ja}}
{{BeeColonyMemberTypes}}
{{Non-timber forest products/ja}}


[[Category:Honey| ]]
[[Category:Beekeeping]]
[[Category:Demulcents]]
[[Category:Non-timber forest products]]
{{二次利用/ja|date=7 June 2025, at 23:01}}