View source for Health

{{Short description|Desirable level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being}}
{{About|the human condition}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}

'''Health''', according to the [[World Health Organization]], is "a state of complete physical, [[Mental health|mental]] and social [[well-being]] and not merely the absence of [[disease]] and [[infirmity]]".<ref name="WHO constitution">[[World Health Organization]]. (2006). [https://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf ''Constitution of the World Health Organization''] – ''Basic Documents'', Forty-fifth edition, Supplement, October 2006.</ref> A variety of definitions have been used for different purposes over time. Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular [[physical exercise]] and adequate sleep,<ref>{{Cite web|last=CDC|date=2021-04-05|title=Benefits of Physical Activity|url=https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pa-health/index.htm|access-date=2021-09-11|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref> and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as [[smoking]] or excessive [[Stress (biology)|stress]]. Some factors affecting health are due to [[Agency (sociology)|individual choices]], such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to [[Social structure|structural]] causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as [[genetic disorder]]s.

== History ==
The meaning of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the [[Biomedical model|biomedical]] perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body's ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by [[disease]]. An example of such a definition of health is: "a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with [[Human body|physical]], [[biological]], [[Psychology|psychological]], and [[social stress]]".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stokes|first1=J.|last2=Noren|first2=J.|last3=Shindell|first3=S.|date=1982-01-01|title=Definition of terms and concepts applicable to clinical preventive medicine|journal=Journal of Community Health|volume=8|issue=1|pages=33–41|issn=0094-5145|pmid=6764783|doi=10.1007/bf01324395|s2cid=1748896}}</ref> Then, in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher, linking health to [[well-being]], in terms of "physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/37089|title=The first ten years of the World Health Organization|last=World Health Organization|publisher=WHO|year=1958|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241560146|publication-date=1958}}</ref> Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized for being vague and excessively broad and was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it was set aside as an impractical ideal, with most discussions of health returning to the practicality of the biomedical model.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|title=Part 1 – Theory: Thinking About Health Chapter 1 Concepts of Health and Illness|website=phprimer.afmc.ca|access-date=2016-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812145405/http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|archive-date=2016-08-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living". In 1984, WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/107835|title=Health promotion : a discussion document on the concept and principles : summary report of the Working Group on Concept and Principles of Health Promotion, Copenhagen, 9–13 July 1984|last=World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe|publisher=WHO Regional Office for Europe|year=1984|location=Copenhagen|type=ICP/HSR 602(m01)5 p}}</ref> Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain [[homeostasis]] and recover from adverse events. Mental, intellectual, emotional and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and [[independent living]].<ref name=":0" /> This opens up many possibilities for health to be taught, strengthened and learned.

Since the late 1970s, the federal [[Healthy People program|Healthy People]] Program has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health.<ref>[https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/tools-and-resources/Federal-Prevention-Initiatives Federal Prevention Initiatives] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615184241/https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/tools-and-resources/Federal-Prevention-Initiatives |date=2016-06-15 }}. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 23358287| year = 2013| last1 = Benz| first1 = J| title = The healthy people initiative: Understanding the user's perspective| journal = Journal of Public Health Management and Practice| volume = 19| issue = 2| pages = 103–09| last2 = Blakey| first2 = C| last3 = Oppenheimer| first3 = C.C| last4 = Scherer| first4 = H| last5 = Robinson| first5 = W.T| doi = 10.1097/PHH.0b013e318254cc31}}</ref> In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued,<ref>[https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/History-and-Development-of-Healthy-People History & Development of Healthy People]. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</ref> featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof. Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jonathan |first1=E. Fielding |last2=Shiriki |first2=Kumanyika |last3=Ronald |first3=W. Manderscheid |date=2013 |title=A Perspective on the Development of the Healthy People 2020 Framework for Improving U.S. Population Health |url=http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |journal=Public Health Reviews |volume=35 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402220801/http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |archive-date=2014-04-02 }}</ref>

Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by [[health care provider]]s. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the [[Veterinary medicine|veterinary sciences]]. The term "healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of [[healthy community design|healthy communities]], [[healthy city|healthy cities]] or [[healthy environment]]s. In addition to [[health care]] interventions and a person's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals. These are referred to as the "determinants of health", which include the individual's background, lifestyle, economic status, social conditions and spirituality; Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24756311 |title= How stressed are you? |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2013-11-06 |access-date=2014-03-01}}</ref>

In the first decade of the 21st century, the conceptualization of health as an ability opened the door for self-assessments to become the main indicators to judge the performance of efforts aimed at improving human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jadad|first=Alejandro R.|date=2016-11-01|title=Creating a pandemic of health: What is the role of digital technologies?|journal=Journal of Public Health Policy|language=en|volume=37|issue=2|pages=260–68|doi=10.1057/s41271-016-0016-1|pmid=27899800|issn=0197-5897|doi-access=free}}</ref> It also created the opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of [[Multimorbidity|multiple chronic diseases]] or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health (away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence of diseases).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/creating-a-pandemic-of-health-opportunities-and-lessons-for-a-university-initiative-at-the-intersection-of-health-equity-and-innovation/|title=Creating a Pandemic of Health: Opportunities and Lessons for a University Initiative at the Intersection of Health, Equity, and Innovation {{!}} Harvard Public Health Review: A Student Publication|website=harvardpublichealthreview.org|language=en|access-date=2018-01-20}}</ref>

==Determinants==
{{See also|Social determinants of health|Risk factor}}

In general, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of [[health science]], but also through the efforts and intelligent [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] choices of the individual and society. According to the [[World Health Organization]], the main determinants of health include the social and [[Economy|economic]] environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviors.<ref name="The determinants of health">World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/hia/evidence/doh/en/ ''The determinants of health.''] Geneva. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref>

More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include the following:<ref name="The determinants of health"/><ref>Public Health Agency of Canada. [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ph-sp/determinants/index-eng.php#evidence ''What Determines Health?''] Ottawa. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref><ref name="Lalonde">Lalonde, Marc (1974). [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ph-sp/pdf/perspect-eng.pdf "''A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians''."] Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028163043/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ph-sp/pdf/perspect-eng.pdf |date=2014-10-28 }}</ref>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* Income and [[social status]]
* [[Social support]] networks
* [[Education]] and [[literacy]]
* Employment/working conditions
* [[Social environments]]
* [[Environment (biophysical)|Physical environments]]
{{col-2}}
* Personal health practices and [[coping skills]]
* Healthy [[child development]]
* [[Human biology|Biology]] and [[genetics]]
* [[Healthcare|Health care services]]
* [[Gender]]
* [[Culture]]
{{col-end}}
[[File:Smallpox eradication team.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.95|[[Donald Henderson]] as part of the CDC's [[smallpox]] eradication team in 1966.]]
An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors, including lifestyles, environments, [[health care system|health care organization]] and [[health policy]], one specific health policy brought into many countries in recent years was the introduction of the [[Sugary drink tax|sugar tax]]. Beverage taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity, particularly among youth. Sugar-sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of their link to obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andreyeva|first1=Tatiana|last2=Chaloupka|first2=Frank J.|last3=Brownell|first3=Kelly D.|title=Estimating the potential of taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages to reduce consumption and generate revenue|journal=Preventive Medicine|volume=52|issue=6|pages=413–16|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.03.013|pmid=21443899|year=2011}}</ref>– such as the 1974 [[Lalonde report]] from Canada;<ref name="Lalonde"/> the [[Alameda County Study]] in California;<ref name="Housman & Dorman 2005">{{cite journal|last1=Housman|first1=Jeff|last2=Dorman|first2=Steve|title=The Alameda County Study: A Systematic, Chronological Review|journal=American Journal of Health Education|date=September–October 2005|volume=36|issue=5|pages=302–08|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ792845|access-date=27 December 2011|format=PDF|issn=1055-6699|id=ERIC document number EJ792845|doi=10.1080/19325037.2005.10608200|s2cid=39133965}}</ref> and the series of [[World Health Report]]s of the World Health Organization, which focuses on [[global health]] issues including access to health care and improving [[public health]] outcomes, especially in [[developing countries]].<ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/whr/en/ ''The world health report'']. Geneva.</ref>

The concept of the "''health field,''" as distinct from [[medicine|medical care]], emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individual's health. These are:<ref name="Lalonde"/>
* Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e., over which the individual has control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death;
* Environmental: all matters related to health external to the [[human body]] and over which the individual has little or no control;
* Biomedical: all aspects of health, physical and mental, developed within the human body as influenced by genetic make-up.

The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, [[mental health|mental]], and social well-being—a combination sometimes referred to as the ''"health triangle."''<ref>Georgia State University. 1998. [http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwche/ ''Health Triangle Slides''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811212138/http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwche/ |date=2019-08-11 }}.</ref><ref>Nutter S. (2003) ''The Health Triangle''. Anchor Points, Inc., {{ISBN|0-9748760-0-3}}.</ref> The WHO's 1986 ''[[Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion]]'' further stated that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."<ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/previous/ottawa/en/index.html The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion.] Adopted at the First International Conference on Health Promotion, Ottawa, 21 November 1986 – WHO/HPR/HEP/95.1.</ref>

Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data from the [[Alameda County Study]] suggested that people can improve their health via [[exercise]], enough [[sleep]], spending time in nature, maintaining a healthy [[body weight]], limiting [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] use, and avoiding [[smoking]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Housman|Dorman|2005|pp=303–04}}. "The linear model supported previous findings, including regular exercise, limited alcohol consumption, abstinence from smoking, sleeping 7–8 hours a night, and maintenance of a healthy weight play an important role in promoting longevity and delaying illness and death." Citing {{cite journal |vauthors=Wingard DL, Berkman LF, Brand RJ | title = A multivariate analysis of health-related practices: a nine-year mortality follow-up of the Alameda County Study | journal = Am J Epidemiol | volume = 116 | issue = 5 | pages = 765–75 | year = 1982 | pmid = 7148802 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113466 }}</ref> Health and [[illness]] can co-exist, as even people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jadad, A.R. | year = 2013 | title = On Living a Long, Healthy, and Happy Life, Full of Love, and with no Regrets, until Our Last Breath | journal = Verhaltenstherapie | volume = 23 | issue = 4| pages = 287–89 | doi=10.1159/000357490|url=http://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/357490| doi-access = free }}</ref>

The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals. This includes characteristics of the [[natural environment]], the [[built environment]] and the [[social environment]]. Factors such as clean [[water]] and [[air]], adequate [[house|housing]], and safe communities and [[road traffic safety|roads]] all have been found to contribute to good health, especially to the health of infants and children.<ref name="The determinants of health"/><ref>UNESCO. [http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/facts_figures/basic_needs.shtml ''The UN World Water Development Report: Facts and Figures – Meeting basic needs.''] Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref> Some studies have shown that a lack of [[Neighbourhood|neighborhood]] recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of [[obesity]], linked to lower overall health and well-being.<ref name="Fanny Price">{{cite journal |vauthors=Björk J, Albin M, Grahn P, Jacobsson H, Ardö J, Wadbro J, Ostergren PO | title = Recreational Values of the Natural Environment in Relation to Neighborhood Satisfaction, Physical Activity, Obesity and Well being | journal = Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health | volume = 62 | issue = 4 | pages = e2 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18365329 | doi = 10.1136/jech.2007.062414 | s2cid = 13859588 | url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/search/ws/files/5178417/1056501.pdf }}</ref> It has been demonstrated that increased time spent in natural environments is associated with improved self-reported health,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mathew P.|last2=Alcock|first2=Ian|last3=Grellier|first3=James|last4=Wheeler|first4=Benedict W.|last5=Hartig|first5=Terry|last6=Warber|first6=Sara L.|last7=Depledge|first7=Michael H.|last8=Fleming|first8=Lora E.|date=2019-06-13|title=Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=7730|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3|pmid=31197192|pmc=6565732|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.7730W|issn=2045-2322|url=http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1325155/FULLTEXT01|doi-access=free}}</ref> suggesting that the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in [[public policy]] and land use.

[[Genetics]], or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the [[genetic predisposition|predisposition]] to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their [[families]]. For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with [[Stress (biology)|stress]], either mental, emotional or physical. For example, [[obesity]] is a significant problem in the [[United States]] that contributes to poor mental health and causes stress in the lives of many people.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Advances in Human Factors, Business Management, Training and Education {{!}} SpringerLink|volume = 498|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42070-7|series = Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing|year = 2017|isbn = 978-3-319-42069-1|last1 = Kantola|first1 = Jussi Ilari|last2 = Barath|first2 = Tibor|last3 = Nazir|first3 = Salman|last4 = Andre|first4 = Terence}}</ref> One difficulty is the issue raised by the [[nature versus nurture|debate]] over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of particular importance.

===Potential issues===
A number of health issues are common around the globe. [[Disease]] is one of the most common. According to GlobalIssues.org, approximately 36&nbsp;million people die each year from non-communicable (i.e., not contagious) diseases, including [[cardiovascular disease]], [[cancer]], [[diabetes]] and chronic lung disease.<ref name=":1" />

Among communicable diseases, both viral and bacterial, [[AIDS]]/[[HIV]], [[tuberculosis]], and [[malaria]] are the most common, causing millions of deaths every year.<ref name=":1" />

Another health issue that causes death or contributes to other health problems is [[malnutrition]], especially among children. One of the groups malnutrition affects most is young children. Approximately 7.5 million children under the age of 5 die from malnutrition, usually brought on by not having the money to find or make food.<ref name=":1" />

Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including [[bone fracture]]s and [[burn]]s, can reduce a person's quality of life or can cause fatalities including [[infection]]s that resulted from the injury (or the severity injury in general).{{sfn|Moffett|2013}}<ref name=":1">Shah, Anup (5 January 2014). [http://www.globalissues.org/issue/587/health-issues "Health Issues."] ''Global Issues''.</ref>

Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include smoking cigarettes, and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also contribute to health issues and also a lack of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral hygiene.{{sfn|Moffett|2013}} There are also genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in how much they affect the person (and when they surface).{{sfn|Moffett|2013}}

Although the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to global ill health is the fact that approximately 1 billion people lack access to health care systems.<ref name=":1" /> Arguably, the most common and harmful health issue is that a great many people do not have access to quality remedies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/health/ |title=United Nations Global Issues |publisher=Un.org |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608150700/http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/health/ |archive-date=2016-06-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intrahealth.org/page/the-top-10-global-health-issues-to-watch-in-2013 |title=The Top 10 Global Health Issues to Watch in 2013 |publisher=Intrahealth.org |access-date=2014-03-01}}</ref>

== Mental health ==
{{main|Mental health}}
The [[World Health Organization]] describes mental health as "a state of [[well-being]] in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community".<ref>World Health Organization (2005). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging evidence, Practice: A report of the World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse in collaboration with the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the University of Melbourne. World Health Organization. Geneva.</ref> Mental health is not just the absence of mental illness.<ref name= Bos>{{cite journal |author1=Bos, E.H.|author2=Snippe, E.|author3=de Jonge, P.|author4=Jeronimus, B.F.| year = 2016 | title = Preserving Subjective Wellbeing in the Face of Psychopathology: Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11| issue = 3| pages = e0150867 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0150867 |pmid=26963923|pmc=4786317|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1150867B|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Mental illness is described as 'the spectrum of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conditions that interfere with social and emotional well-being and the lives and productivity of people. Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a person. Other terms include: 'mental health problem', 'illness', 'disorder', 'dysfunction'.<ref>Long, Steven W. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161012224715/http://lac.niu.edu.tw/files/archive/73_37d1d9ea.pdf Lifestyle Management: Achieving & Maintaining Good Healt]. niu.edu.tw</ref>

Approximately twenty percent of all adults in the US are considered diagnosable with a mental illness. Mental illnesses are the leading cause of disability in the US and Canada. Examples of these illnesses include [[schizophrenia]], [[ADHD]], [[major depressive disorder]], [[bipolar disorder]], [[anxiety disorder]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] and [[Autism spectrum|autism]].<ref>[http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-numbers-count-mental-disorders-in-america/index.shtml The numbers count: Mental disorders in America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728102548/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-numbers-count-mental-disorders-in-america/index.shtml |date=2014-07-28 }}. nih.gov</ref>

&nbsp;Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:<ref>[https://www.mentalhealth.gov/basics/what-is-mental-health "What Is Mental Health?"] (5 April 2019).  ''MentalHealth.gov''.  Retrieved 16 November 2019.</ref>
* Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry
* Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse
* Family history of mental health problems

==Maintaining==
Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, shaped by both the evolution of [[health care]] knowledge and practices as well as personal strategies and organized interventions for staying healthy.

===Diet===
{{Main|Healthy diet | Human nutrition}}
[[File:Overweight or obese population OECD 2010.png|upright=0.95|thumb|Percentage of overweight or obese population in 2010, Data source: OECD's iLibrary.<ref name="oecd.org">{{cite web|url=https://stats.oecd.org/|title=OECD Statistics|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref><ref name="OECDOverwObese">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=53508|title=OECD.StatExtracts, Health, Non-Medical Determinants of Health, Body weight, Overweight or obese population, self-reported and measured, Total population|publisher=OECD's iLibrary|year=2013|format=Online Statistics|access-date=2013-12-12}}</ref>]]

[[File:Obese population OECD 2010.png|upright=0.95|thumb|right|Percentage of obese population in 2010, Data source: OECD's iLibrary.<ref name="oecd.org"/><ref name="OECDObese">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=53527|title=OECD.StatExtracts, Health, Non-Medical Determinants of Health, Body weight, Obese population, self-reported and measured, Total population|publisher=OECD's iLibrary|year=2013|format=Online Statistics|access-date=2013-12-13}}</ref>]]
An important way to maintain one's personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide [[nutrients]] to the body. Such nutrients provide the body with energy and keep it running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e., [[blood pressure]]). Water is essential for growth, reproduction and good health. [[Macronutrients]] are consumed in relatively large quantities and include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and fatty acids. Micronutrients – vitamins and minerals – are consumed in relatively smaller quantities, but are essential to body processes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926205812/http://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 26, 2011|title=WHO {{!}} Nutrients|website=WHO|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref> The [[food guide pyramid]] is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates and sugars). Making healthy food choices can lower one's risk of heart disease and the risk of developing some types of [[cancer]], and can help one maintain their weight within a healthy range.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |title=Healthy Eating: Why should I make healthy food choices? |publisher=Livelifewell.nsw.gov.au |access-date=2014-03-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227194359/http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |archive-date=2014-02-27 }}</ref>

The [[Mediterranean diet]] is commonly associated with health-promoting effects. This is sometimes attributed to the inclusion of bioactive compounds such as [[phenolic compound]]s, [[isoprenoid]]s and [[alkaloid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Garrido M |author2=González-Flores D |author3=Marchena AM |author4=Propr E |author5=García-Parra J |author6=Barriga C |author7=Rodríguez A.B. |title=A lycopene-enriched virgin olive oil enhances antioxidant status in humans |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=93 |issue=8 |pages=1820–26 |pmid=23225211 |year=2013 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.5972 }}</ref>

===Exercise===
{{Main | Exercise}}
[[Exercise|Physical exercise]] enhances or maintains [[physical fitness]] and overall health and wellness. It strengthens one's bones and muscles and improves the [[cardiovascular system]]. According to the [[National Institutes of Health]], there are four types of exercise: [[endurance]], [[Physical strength|strength]], [[flexibility]], and [[Balance (ability)|balance]].<ref>{{cite web|title=4 Types of Exercise|url=https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|publisher=Go4Life, National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health|language=en|date=15 May 2014}}</ref> The CDC states that physical exercise can reduce the risks of heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, depression, and anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-21|title=CDC {{!}} Physical Activity {{!}} Facts {{!}} Healthy Schools|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/facts.htm|access-date=2021-05-30|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us}}</ref> For the purpose of counteracting possible risks, it is often recommended to start physical exercise gradually as one goes. Participating in any exercising, whether it is housework, yardwork, walking or standing up when talking on the phone, is often thought to be better than none when it comes to health.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Health Risks of an Inactive Lifestyle|url=https://medlineplus.gov/healthrisksofaninactivelifestyle.html|access-date=2021-05-30|website=medlineplus.gov}}</ref>

===Sleep===
{{Main | Sleep | Sleep deprivation}}
Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing [[sleep deprivation]] has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pilkington |first=Stephanie |date=August 7, 2013 |title=Causes and consequences of sleep deprivation in hospitalized patients |journal=Nursing Standard |volume=27 |issue=49 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.7748/ns2013.08.27.49.35.e7649|pmid=23924135 }}</ref> In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/august/sleep-and-sickness.html |title=New Research Confirms Lack of Sleep Connected to Getting Sick |publisher=cmu.edu |author=Shilo Rea |date=2015-08-31|access-date=2015-11-25}}</ref> Due to the role of sleep in regulating [[Sleep and metabolism|metabolism]], insufficient sleep may also play a role in [[weight gain]] or, conversely, in impeding [[weight loss]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Sanjay R. |last2=Hu |first2=Frank B. |date=January 17, 2008 |title=Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review |journal=Obesity (Silver Spring) |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=643–53 |doi=10.1038/oby.2007.118 |pmid=18239586 |pmc=2723045}}</ref> Additionally, in 2007, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]], which is the cancer research agency for the [[World Health Organization]], declared that "shiftwork that involves [[Circadian rhythm|circadian]] disruption is probably [[carcinogen]]ic to humans," speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |title=IARC Monographs Programme finds cancer hazards associated with shiftwork, painting and firefighting |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |date=December 5, 2007 |access-date=November 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721001355/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |archive-date=July 21, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age, and concluded that "Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being."<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hirshkowitz, Max |author2=Whiton, Kaitlyn | title=National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary | journal= Sleep Health |url= http://www.sleephealthjournal.org/article/S2352-7218(15)00015-7/fulltext |date=14 January 2015 | pmid = 29073412| doi= 10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 |access-date=25 November 2015 |display-authors=etal | volume=1 |issue=1 | pages=40–43}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
! Age and condition
! Sleep Needs
|-
| Newborns (0–3 months)
| 14 to 17 hours
|-
| Infants (4–11 months)
| 12 to 15 hours
|-
| Toddlers (1–2 years)
| 11 to 14 hours
|-
| Preschoolers (3–5 years)
| 10 to 13 hours
|-
| School-age children (6–13 years)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| &nbsp; 9 to 11 hours
|-
| Teenagers (14–17 years)
| &nbsp; 8 to 10 hours
|-
| Adults (18–64 years)
| &nbsp; 7 to 9 hours
|-
| Older Adults (65 years and over)
| &nbsp; 7 to 8 hours
|}

===Role of science===
{{Main|Health science|Health care}}
[[File:Nieuws uit Indonesië, het werk van de Nederlandse dienst voor Volksgezondheid Weeknummer 46-21 - Open Beelden - 16742.ogv|thumb|upright=0.95|The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the [[Dutch East Indies]], May 1946]]
[[Health science]] is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches to health science: the study and [[research]] of the [[Human body|body]] and health-related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds on many sub-fields, including [[biology]], [[biochemistry]], [[physics]], [[epidemiology]], [[pharmacology]], [[medical sociology]]. Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications in areas such as [[health education]], [[biomedical engineering]], [[biotechnology]] and [[public health]].

Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures developed through the health sciences are provided by practitioners trained in [[medicine]], [[nursing]], [[nutrition]], [[pharmacy]], [[social work]], [[psychology]], [[occupational therapy]], [[physical therapy]] and other [[health care provider|health care professions]]. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of communities and populations. [[Workplace wellness]] programs are increasingly being adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees, as are [[school health services]] in order to improve the health and well-being of children.

===Role of medicine and medical science===
{{main|Medicine}}

Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within [[health care system]]s. Legal, [[credential]]ing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided.

From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the [[Catholic Church]] today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.<ref>{{cite book | last = Blainey | first = Geoffrey | name-list-style = vanc |year=2011 |title=A Short History of Christianity |publisher=Penguin Viking |oclc=793902685 |title-link=A Short History of Christianity }}{{page needed|date=June 2014}}</ref> Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the [[United States]])<ref name="IOM">{{cite web|url=http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |title=Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations |publisher=Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science |date=14 Jan 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019103757/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2009 }}</ref><ref name="ccuhc">{{cite web |url=http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |title=The Case For Single Payer, Universal Health Care for the United States |publisher=Cthealth.server101.com |access-date=4 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423105127/http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |archive-date=23 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and many [[Developing country|developing countries]] provide medical services through a system of [[universal health care]] that aims to guarantee care for all through a [[single-payer health care]] system, or compulsory private or co-operative [[health insurance]]. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three.

Most [[tribe|tribal]] societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.

[[File:Drug ampoule JPN.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=collection of glass bottles of different sizes|Modern drug [[ampoule]]s]]

Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness,<ref>{{cite journal | first = Martin | last = Sipkoff | name-list-style = vanc | title = Transparency called key to uniting cost control, quality improvement | journal = Managed Care | date = January 2004 | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–42 | pmid = 14763279 | url = http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html | access-date = 16 April 2006 | archive-date = 17 February 2004 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040217160421/http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html | url-status = live }}</ref> new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.

====Delivery====
{{See also|Health care|clinic|hospital|hospice}}

Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary, Secondary and Tertiary HealthCare – Arthapedia |url=http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle%3DPrimary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare |website=www.arthapedia.in |access-date=19 January 2021 |archive-date=28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128011946/http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle=Primary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Nurses at Butawin Urban Clinic, PNG (10711159465).jpg|thumb|alt=photograph of three nurses|Nurses in [[Kokopo]], [[East New Britain]], [[Papua New Guinea]]|upright]]
[[Primary care]] medical services are provided by [[physician]]s, [[physician assistant]]s, [[nurse practitioner]]s, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care.<ref>{{cite web |title=Types of health care providers: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm |website=medlineplus.gov |access-date=19 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123051332/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> These occur in physician offices, [[clinic]]s, [[nursing home]]s, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, [[preventive care]] and [[health education]] for all ages and both sexes.

[[Secondary care]] medical services are provided by [[medical specialist]]s in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient.<ref>{{cite web |title=Secondary Health Care |url=https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals. |website=International Medical Corps |access-date=19 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117030041/https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals. |url-status=live }}</ref> Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both [[ambulatory care]] and [[inpatient]] services, [[Emergency department]]s, [[intensive care medicine]], surgery services, [[physical therapy]], [[childbirth|labor and delivery]], [[endoscopy]] units, diagnostic [[Medical laboratory|laboratory]] and [[medical imaging]] services, [[Hospice care|hospice]] centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.

[[Tertiary care]] medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include [[trauma center]]s, [[burn (injury)|burn]] treatment centers, advanced [[neonatology]] unit services, [[organ transplant]]s, high-risk pregnancy, [[radiation therapy|radiation]] [[oncology]], etc.

Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by [[Electronic health record|electronic means]].

In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B | title = Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–82 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23599551 | pmc = 3629451 | doi = 10.2471/BLT.12.110015 }}</ref>

[[Separation of prescribing and dispensing]] is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the [[physician]] who provides a [[medical prescription]] is independent from the  [[pharmacist]] who provides the [[prescription drug]]. In the [[Western world]] there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ | title = Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience | journal = Health Policy and Planning | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 316–29 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12917273 | doi = 10.1093/heapol/czg038 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Role of public health===
{{Main|Public health}}
{{See also|Global health}}

[[File:NewZealand-Stamp-1933-Health.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|Postage stamp, [[New Zealand]], 1933. Public health has been promoted&nbsp;– and depicted&nbsp;– in a wide variety of ways.]]
Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."<ref>{{cite journal | author = Winslow CE | title = The Untilled Fields of Public Health | journal = Science | volume = 51 | issue = 1306 | pages = 23–33 | year = 1920 | pmid = 17838891 | doi = 10.1126/science.51.1306.23 | bibcode = 1920Sci....51...23W | url = https://archive.org/details/cihm_90880 }}</ref> It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on [[population health]] analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a [[pandemic]]). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of [[epidemiology]], [[biostatistics]] and [[health services]]. [[Environmental Health|Environmental health]], [[community health]], [[behavioral health]], and [[occupational health]] are also important areas of public health.

The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the [[health promotion|promotion of healthy behavior]], [[healthy community design|communities]], and (in aspects relevant to human health) [[environmental protection|environments]]. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring by implementing [[health education|educational programs]], developing [[health policy|policies]], administering services and conducting [[research]].<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050307160406/http://www.whatispublichealth.org/about/index.html ''What is Public Health?''] Retrieved 2010-06-24</ref> In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a [[pathogen]] can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an [[outbreak]]. [[Vaccination]] programs and distribution of [[condom]]s to prevent the spread of [[communicable disease]]s are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such).

[[Public health]] also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the [[country]] and, in some cases, the [[continent]] or [[world]]. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial, geographical or socio-cultural constraints.<ref>Hispanics and the Future of America. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19910 ''Access to and Quality of Health Care'']</ref> Applications of the public [[health system]] include the areas of [[maternal health|maternal]] and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of [[infectious disease|infectious]] and [[chronic disease]]s.

The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease in the mortality rates for [[infants]] and [[child]]ren and a continual increase in [[life expectancy]] in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900,<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050228214104/http://www.whatispublichealth.org/impact/index.html ''Impact of Public Health''.] Retrieved 2010-6-24.</ref> and worldwide by six years since 1990.<ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/gho/mortality_burden_disease/life_tables/situation_trends_text/en/index.html ''Life expectancy at birth''], accessed 20 April 2011.</ref>

===Self-care strategies===
{{Main|Self care}}
{{See also|Chronic care management|Social relation|Stress management}}
<!--[[File:Nanogreens-2.gif|thumb|Example of [[nanogreens]] from health and hygiene.]] -->
[[File:Borch Lady washing hands.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|A lady washing her hands c. 1655]]
Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through [[disease management (health)|integrative care]]. They also include personal [[hygiene]] practices to prevent infection and illness, such as [[bathing]] and [[washing hands]] with soap; [[oral hygiene|brushing and flossing teeth]]; storing, preparing and handling [[food safety|food safely]]; and many others. The information gleaned from personal [[Observations of Daily Living|observations of daily living]]&nbsp;– such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features&nbsp;– may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (''e.g.'', "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (''e.g.'', a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).<ref name="e-primer3">[[Robert Wood Johnson Foundation]]. (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828125539/http://www.projecthealthdesign.org/media/file/E-primer_3.pdf ''Health in Everyday Living''.]</ref>

Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life. The maintenance of strong [[social relation]]ships, [[volunteering]], and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One American study among [[old age|seniors]] over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris AH, Thoresen CE | title = Volunteering is Associated with Delayed Mortality in Older People: Analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Aging | journal = Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 739–52 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16176953 | doi = 10.1177/1359105305057310 | s2cid = 23314208 | url = http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722153152/http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | archive-date = 2011-07-22 }}</ref> Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better [[cognition|cognitive performance]] scores, fewer [[mood disorder|depressive symptoms]], and better mental well-being and [[life satisfaction]] than non-volunteering retirees.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schwingel A, Niti MM, Tang C, Ng TP | title = Continued work employment and volunteerism and mental well-being of older adults: Singapore longitudinal ageing studies | journal = Age and Ageing | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 531–37 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19474036 | doi = 10.1093/ageing/afp089 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Prolonged [[psychological stress]] may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in [[cognitive impairment]] with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease.<ref>{{cite journal | author = McEwen BS | title = Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: central role of the brain | journal = Dialogues Clin Neurosci | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–81 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/bmcewen | pmid = 17290796 | pmc = 3181832 }} {{open access}}</ref> [[Stress management]] is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. [[Relaxation technique]]s are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include [[cognitive therapy]], [[meditation]], and [[Optimism|positive thinking]], which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as [[problem solving]] and [[time management]] skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where those skills are applicable.

==Occupational==
{{Main|Occupational safety and health}}
In addition to [[safety]] risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other long-term health problems. Among the most common [[occupational diseases]] are various forms of [[pneumoconiosis]], including [[silicosis]] and [[coalworker's pneumoconiosis|coal worker's pneumoconiosis (black lung disease)]]. [[occupational asthma|Asthma]] is another [[respiratory illness]] that many workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including [[eczema]], [[dermatitis]], [[urticaria]], [[sunburn]], and [[skin cancer]].<ref name=hse>[http://www.hse.gov.uk/skin/ HSE (Health and Safety Executive of Great Britain) Skin at work] Retrieved on June 20, 2009</ref><ref name="niosh-skin">{{cite web|title=Skin Exposure & Effects|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/skin/|website=NIOSH Topics|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref> Other occupational diseases of concern include [[carpal tunnel syndrome]] and [[lead poisoning]].

As the number of [[service sector]] jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become [[sedentary lifestyle|sedentary]], presenting a different array of health problems than those associated with [[manufacturing]] and the [[primary sector]]. Contemporary problems, such as the growing rate of [[obesity]] and issues relating to [[stress (psychological)|stress]] and [[overwork]] in many countries, have further complicated the interaction between work and health.

Many governments view occupational health as a social challenge and have formed public organizations to ensure the health and safety of workers. Examples of these include the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Health and Safety Executive]] and in the [[United States]], the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]], which conducts research on occupational health and safety, and the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]], which handles regulation and policy relating to worker safety and health.<ref name="niosh-site">{{cite web|title=The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="osha-site">{{cite web|title=Occupational Safety and Health Administration|url=https://www.osha.gov/|publisher=U.S. Department of Labor|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="hse-site">{{cite web|title=Health and Safety Executive|url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/|publisher=U.K. Health and Safety Executive|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div-col}}
* [[Disease burden]]
* [[Environmental health]]
* [[Healing]]
* [[Health equity]]
* [[Human enhancement]]
* [[Men's health]]
* [[One Health]]
* [[Population health]]
* [[Women's health]]
* [[Youth health]]
* [[ List of health and wellness podcasts]]
{{div-col-end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|health|healthy|healthful}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikivoyage|Stay healthy|staying healthy}}
{{Wikiversity|Health}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}

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