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{{short description|Scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals}}
{{Anatomical terminology series}}

'''Anatomical terminology''' is a form of [[scientific terminology]] used by [[anatomy|anatomist]]s, [[zoology|zoologists]], and [[health professionals]] such as doctors.

Anatomical terminology uses many unique terms, [[suffix]]es, and [[prefix]]es deriving from [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Latin]]. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise, reducing ambiguity and errors. Also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted.

To illustrate how inexact day-to-day language can be: a scar "above the wrist" could be located on the forearm two or three inches away from the hand or at the base of the hand; and could be on the palm-side or back-side of the arm. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>

An international standard for anatomical terminology, ''[[Terminologia Anatomica]]'' has been created.

==Word formation==
{{see also|Medical terminology}}

Anatomical terminology has quite regular [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]: the same [[prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es are used to add meanings to different [[Root (linguistics)|roots]]. The root of a term often refers to an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] or [[tissue (biology)|tissue]]. For example, the Latin names of structures such as ''[[biceps|musculus biceps brachii]]'' can be split up and refer to, ''musculus'' for muscle, ''biceps'' for "two-headed", ''brachii'' as in the brachial region of the arm. The first word describes what is being spoken about, the second describes it, and the third points to location.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>

When describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the ''[[Navel|umbilicus]]'' or ''[[sternum]],'' or anatomical ''lines'', such as the ''midclavicular line'' from the centre of the clavicle. The ''cephalon'' or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is further differentiated into the ''cranium'' (skull), ''facies'' (face), ''frons'' (forehead), ''oculus'' (eye area), ''auris'' (ear), ''bucca'' (cheek), nasus (nose), ''os''<!--oris is genitive--> (mouth), and ''mentum'' (chin). The neck area is called the ''cervix'' or cervical region. Examples of structures named according to this include the ''[[frontalis muscle]], [[submental lymph nodes]], [[buccal membrane]]'' and ''[[orbicularis oculi muscle]].''

Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body. For example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its [[embryology|embryonic]] origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, ''[[wikt:rostral|rostral]]'' refers to proximity to the front of the nose, and is particularly used when describing the [[skull]].<ref name=GRAYS2005 />{{rp|4}} Similarly, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as to what the "front", "back", "inner" and "outer" surfaces are. For this reason, the terms below are used:
* ''Radial'' referring to the [[radius (bone)|radius]] bone, seen laterally in the [[standard anatomical position]].
* ''Ulnar'' referring to the [[ulna]] bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position.
Other terms are also used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet, and other structures such as the eye.

==History==
{{further|International scientific vocabulary|Medical terminology}}
International morphological terminology is used by the [[colleges]] of [[medicine]] and [[dentistry]] and other areas of the [[health sciences]]. It facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of [[research]], [[teaching]] and [[medical care]]. The international morphological terminology refers to [[morphology (biology)|morphological sciences]] as a [[biological sciences]]' branch. In this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism. It is [[descriptive]] and [[function (biology)|functional]]. Basically, it covers the [[gross anatomy]] and the [[microscopic]] ([[histology]] and [[cell biology|cytology]]) of living beings. It involves both [[development anatomy]] ([[embryology]]) and the anatomy of the adult. It also includes [[comparative anatomy]] between different species. The vocabulary is extensive, varied and complex, and requires a systematic presentation.

Within the international field, a group of experts reviews, analyzes and discusses the morphological terms of the structures of the [[human body]], forming today's [[Federative International Committee on Anatomical Terminology|Terminology Committee]] (FICAT) from the [[International Federation of Associations of Anatomists]] (IFAA).<ref name="International Federation of Associations of Anatomists">{{cite book |author=Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology |title=Terminologia Histologica – International Terms for Human Cytology and Histology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Cardiff |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7817-6610-4 |oclc=63680504 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology |title=Terminologia Anatomica – International Anatomical Terminology |publisher=Thieme |location=Stuttgart |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-13-115251-0 |oclc=43947698 }}</ref> It deals with the anatomical, histological and embryologic terminology. In the [[Latin American]] field, there are meetings called [[Iberian Latin American Symposium Terminology]] (SILAT), where a group of experts of the [[Pan American Association of Anatomy]] (PAA)<ref name="Pan American Association of Anatomy">{{cite journal |author=Losardo, Ricardo J. |title=Pan American Association of Anatomy: history and relevant regulations |journal=Int J Morphol |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=1345–52 |year=2009 |issn=0717-9367}}</ref> that speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], disseminates and studies the international morphological terminology.

The current international standard for human anatomical terminology is based on the [[Terminologia Anatomica]] (TA). It was developed by the [[Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology]] (FCAT) and the [[International Federation of Associations of Anatomists]] (IFAA) and was released in 1998.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|nine/10146151|Terminologia Anatomica}}{{Dead link|date=August 2016}}</ref> It supersedes the previous standard, ''[[Nomina Anatomica]]''.<ref name="isbn0-86577-808-6 ">{{cite book |title=Terminologia Anatomica: International Anatomical Terminology |publisher=Thieme Medical Publishers |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-86577-808-5 }}</ref> ''Terminologia Anatomica'' contains terminology for about 7500 human gross (macroscopic) anatomical structures.<ref>
{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJTlhoe6t4wC&pg=PA665
|title=Connecting Medical Informatics And ... - Google Book Search
|access-date=2008-08-22
|isbn=9781586035495
|last1=Engelbrecht
|first1=Rolf
|year=2005
}}
</ref> For microanatomy, known as [[histology]], a similar standard exists in [[Terminologia Histologica]], and for embryology, the study of development, a standard exists in [[Terminologia Embryologica]]. These standards specify generally accepted names that can be used to refer to histological and embryological structures in journal articles, textbooks, and other areas. As of September 2016, two sections of the Terminologia Anatomica, including central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, were merged to form the [[Terminologia Neuroanatomica]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ten Donkelaar|first1=Hans J.|last2=Broman|first2=Jonas|last3=Neumann|first3=Paul E.|last4=Puelles|first4=Luis|last5=Riva|first5=Alessandro|last6=Tubbs|first6=R. Shane|last7=Kachlik|first7=David|date=2017-03-01|title=Towards a Terminologia Neuroanatomica|journal=Clinical Anatomy|volume=30|issue=2|pages=145–155|doi=10.1002/ca.22809|pmid=27910135|s2cid=32863255|issn=1098-2353}}</ref>

Recently, the Terminologia Anatomica has been perceived with a considerable criticism regarding its content including coverage, grammar and spelling mistakes, inconsistencies, and errors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Strzelec|first1=B.|last2=Chmielewski|first2=P. P.|last3=Gworys|first3=B.|date=2017|title=The Terminologia Anatomica matters: examples from didactic, scientific, and clinical practice|url=https://journals.viamedica.pl/folia_morphologica/article/view/FM.a2016.0078|journal=Folia Morphologica|volume=76|issue=3|pages=340–347|doi=10.5603/FM.a2016.0078|pmid=28026851|issn=1644-3284|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Location==
{{main|Anatomical terms of location}}

Anatomical terminology is often chosen to highlight the relative location of body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as "inferior to" another or a physician might describe a tumor as "superficial to" a deeper body structure.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>

===Anatomical position===
[[File:Directional Terms.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[anatomical position]], with terms of relative location noted.]]
Anatomical terms used to describe location are based on a body positioned in what is called the [[standard anatomical position]]. This position is one in which a person is standing, feet apace, with palms forward and thumbs facing outwards.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology ">{{cite book|last1=Betts|first1=J Gordon|last2=Desaix|first2=Peter|last3=Johnson|first3=Eddie|last4=Johnson|first4=Jody E|last5=Korol|first5=Oksana|last6=Kruse|first6=Dean|last7=Poe|first7=Brandon|last8=Wise|first8=James|last9=Womble|first9=Mark D|last10=Young|first10=Kelly A|url=http://cnx.org/contents/14fb4ad7-39a1-4eee-ab6e-3ef2482e3e22@6.11|title=Anatomy & Physiology|location=Houston|publisher=OpenStax CNX|id=ID: 14fb4ad7-39a1-4eee-ab6e-3ef2482e3e22@6.11|isbn=978-1-93-816813-0|date=October 3, 2013|access-date=November 16, 2013|at=1.6. Anatomical Terminology}}</ref> Just as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body "map," or anatomical position, is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>

Using the standard anatomical position reduces confusion. It means that regardless of the position of a body, the position of structures within it can be described without ambiguity.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology " />

===Regions===
{{main|List of human anatomical regions}}
[[File:Regions of Human Body.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The human body is shown in anatomical position in an anterior view and a posterior view. The regions of the body are labeled in boldface.]]

In terms of anatomy, the body is divided into regions. In the front, the trunk is referred to as the "thorax" and "abdomen". The back as a general area is the [[Dorsum (anatomy)|dorsum]] or dorsal area, and the lower back is the lumbus or [[lumbar region]]. The shoulder blades are the [[scapula]]r area and the breastbone is the [[sternum|sternal]] region. The [[abdomen|abdominal area]] is the region between the chest and the [[pelvis]]. The breast is also called the mammary region, the armpit as the [[axilla]] and axillary, and the [[navel]] as the umbilicus and [[umbilical region|umbilical]]. The pelvis is the lower torso, between the abdomen and the [[thigh]]s. The [[groin]], where the thigh joins the trunk, are the inguen and inguinal area.

The entire arm is referred to as the brachium and brachial, the front of the elbow as the antecubitis and [[antecubital fossa|antecubital]], the back of the elbow as the [[olecranon]] or olecranal, the [[forearm]] as the antebrachium and antebrachial, the [[wrist]] as the [[Carpal bones|carpus]] and carpal area, the [[hand]] as the manus and manual, the palm as the palma and palmar, the [[thumb]] as the pollex, and the [[finger]]s as the digits, [[phalanx bone|phalanges]], and phalangeal. The [[buttocks]] are the gluteus or gluteal region and the pubic area is the [[pubis bone|pubis]].

Anatomists divide the lower limb into the thigh (the part of the limb between the [[hip]] and the [[knee]]) and the leg (which refers only to the area of the limb between the knee and the [[ankle]]).<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology "/> The thigh is the [[femur]] and the femoral region. The kneecap is the [[patella]] and patellar while the back of the knee is the popliteus and [[popliteal fossa|popliteal]] area. The leg (between the knee and the ankle) is the crus and crural area, the lateral aspect of the leg is the [[wikt:peroneal|peroneal]] area, and the calf is the sura and sural region. The ankle is the tarsus and tarsal, and the heel is the calcaneus or calcaneal. The foot is the pes and pedal region, and the sole of the foot is the planta and plantar. As with the fingers, the toes are also called the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal area. The big toe is referred to as the hallux.

====Abdomen====
[[File:Abdominal Quadrant Regions.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Abdominal regions are used for example to localize pain.]]
{{main|Quadrants and regions of abdomen}}

To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient's abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, the [[abdominal cavity]] can be divided into either [[Quadrants and regions of abdomen|nine regions or four quadrants]].<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution" />

;Quadrants
The abdomen may be divided into four quadrants, more commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with one horizontal and one vertical line that intersect at the patient's umbilicus (navel).<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/> The right upper quadrant (RUQ) includes the lower right [[rib]]s, right side of the [[liver]], and right side of the [[transverse colon]]. The left upper quadrant (LUQ) includes the lower left ribs, [[stomach]], [[spleen]], and upper left area of the [[transverse colon]]. The right lower quadrant (RLQ) includes the right half of the [[small intestines]], [[ascending colon]], right pelvic bone and upper right area of the [[bladder]]. The left lower quadrant (LLQ) contains the left half of the small intestine and left pelvic bone.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology " />

;Regions
The more detailed regional approach subdivides the cavity into nine regions, with two vertical and two horizontal lines drawn according to landmark structures. The vertical; or midclavicular lines, are drawn as if dropped from the midpoint of each [[clavicle]]. The superior horizontal line is the ''[[subcostal line]]'', drawn immediately inferior to the ribs.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/> The inferior horizontal line is called the ''[[intertubercular line]]'', and is to cross the iliac tubercles, found at the superior aspect of the pelvis. The upper right square is the right hypochondriac region and contains the base of the right ribs. The upper left square is the left hypochondriac region and contains the base of the left ribs.

The epigastric region is the upper central square and contains the bottom edge of the liver as well as the upper areas of the stomach. The diaphragm curves like an upside down U over these three regions. The central right region is called the right lumbar region and contains the ascending colon and the right edge of the small intestines. The central square contains the transverse colon and the upper regions of the small intestines. The left lumbar region contains the left edge of the transverse colon and the left edge of the small intestine. The lower right square is the right iliac region and contains the right pelvic bones and the ascending colon. The lower left square is the left iliac region and contains the left pelvic bone and the lower left regions of the small intestine. The lower central square contains the bottom of the pubic bones, upper regions of the bladder and the lower region of the small intestine.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology" />

===Standard terms===
When anatomists refer to the right and left of the body, it is in reference to the right and left of the subject, not the right and left of the observer. When observing a body in the anatomical position, the left of the body is on the observer's right, and vice versa.

These standardized terms avoid confusion. Examples of terms include:<ref name=GRAYS2005 />{{rp|4}}
<!-- This list should be kept in the article -->
* ''[[wikt:anterior|Anterior]]'' and ''[[wikt:posterior|posterior]]'', which describe structures at the front (anterior) and back (posterior) of the body. For example, the toes are anterior to the heel, and the popliteus is posterior to the patella.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>
* ''[[wikt:superior|Superior]]'' and ''[[wikt:inferior|inferior]]'', which describe a position above (superior) or below (inferior) another part of the body. For example, the orbits are superior to the oris, and the pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>
* ''[[wikt:proximal|Proximal]]'' and ''[[wikt:distal|distal]]'', which describe a position that is closer to (proximal) or farther from (distal) the trunk of the body.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/> For example, the shoulder is proximal to the arm, and the foot is distal to the knee.
* ''[[wikt:superficial|Superficial]]'' and ''[[wikt:deep|deep]]'', which describe structures that are closer to (superficial) or farther from (deep) the surface of the body. For example, the skin is superficial to the bones, and the brain is deep to the skull.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/> Sometimes ''profound'' is used synonymously with ''deep''.
* ''[[wikt:medial|Medial]]'' and ''[[wikt:lateral|lateral]]'', which describe a position that is closer to (medial) or farther from (lateral) the midline of the body. For example, the shoulders are lateral to the heart, and the umbilicus is medial to the hips. The medial side of the left knee is the side toward the opposite knee.
* ''[[wikt:radial|Radial]]'' and ''[[wikt:ulnar|ulnar]]'', which describe only structures at or distal to the elbow and may be used interchangeably with medial and lateral in that particular area because they are less confusing. Examples: The thumb is on the radial side of the hand (the same as saying the lateral side); the ulnar side of the wrist is the side toward the little finger (medial side).
* ''[[wikt:ventral|Ventral]]'' and ''[[wikt:dorsal|dorsal]]'', which describe structures derived from the front (ventral) and back (dorsal) of the [[embryo]], before limb rotation.
* ''[[wikt:rostral|Rostral]]'' and ''[[wikt:caudal|caudal]]'', which describe structures close to (rostral) or farther from (caudal) the nose. For example, the eyes are rostral to the back of the skull, and the tailbone is caudal to the chest.
* ''[[wikt:cranial|Cranial]]'' and caudal, which describe structures close to the top of the skull (cranial), and towards the bottom of the body (caudal).
* Occasionally, ''sinister'' for left, and ''dexter'' for right are used.
* ''Paired'', referring to a structure that is present on both sides of the body. For example, the hands are paired structures.

===Axes===
Each locational term above can define the direction of a [[Euclidean vector|vector]], and pairs of them can define [[wikt:axis#Noun|axes]], that is, lines of orientation. For example, blood can be said to flow in a proximal or distal direction, and anteroposterior, mediolateral, and inferosuperior axes are lines along which the body extends, like the X, Y, and Z axes of a [[Cartesian coordinate system]]. An axis can be projected to a corresponding [[#Planes|plane]].

===Planes===
{{Main|Anatomical plane}}
[[File:Planes of Body.jpg|thumb|right|The three anatomical planes of the body: the sagittal, transverse (or horizontal), frontal planes]]

Anatomy is often described in ''[[wikt:planes|planes]]'', referring to two-dimensional ''[[wikt:section|sections]]'' of the body. A ''section'' is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body. Three planes are commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine:<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/><ref name= GRAYS2005>{{cite book|last=Drake|first=Richard L.|title=Gray's anatomy for students|year=2005|publisher=Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-443-06612-2|edition=Pbk.|author2=Vogl, Wayne |author3=Tibbitts, Adam W.M. Mitchell |others=illustrations by Richard Richardson, Paul }}</ref>{{rp|4}}
* The ''sagittal plane'' is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the ''midsagittal'' or ''median plane''. If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a ''parasagittal plane'', or less commonly a longitudinal section.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>
* The ''frontal plane'' is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a ''coronal plane'', following [[Latin]] {{lang|la|corona}}, which means "crown".<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>
* The ''transverse plane'' is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/>

==Functional state==
Anatomical terms may be used to describe the functional state of an organ: {{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
* ''[[Anastomose]]s'' refers to the connection between two structures previously branched out, such as blood vessels or leaf veins. <!-- from [[Anastomose]] -->
* ''[[wikt:patent|Patent]]'', meaning a structure such as an [[artery]] or [[vein]] that abnormally remains open, such as a [[patent ductus arteriosus]], referring to the [[ductus arteriosus]] which normally becomes [[ligamentum arteriosum]] within three weeks of birth. <!-- no medical article on [[Patent (disambiguation)]]--> Something that is patent may also refer to a channel such as a [[blood vessel]], section of [[bowel]], [[urinary system|collecting system]] or [[duct (anatomy)|duct]] that is not occluded and remains open to free flow. Such obstructions may include a calculus (i.e. a [[kidney stone]] or [[gallstone]]), plaque (like that encountered in vital arteries such as [[coronary arteries]] and [[cerebral arteries]]), or another unspecified obstruction, such as a [[mass]] or [[bowel obstruction]].
* A ''[[wikt:plexus|plexus]]'' refers to a net-like arrangement of a [[nerve]].

===Anatomical variation===
{{main|Anatomical variation}}
The term [[anatomical variation]] is used to refer to a difference in anatomical structures that is not regarded as a disorder. Many structures vary slightly between people, for example muscles that attach in slightly different places. For example, the presence or absence of the [[palmaris longus]] tendon. Anatomical variation is unlike [[congenital anomalies]], which are considered a disorder.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=DeSilva|first1=Malini|last2=Munoz|first2=Flor M.|last3=Mcmillan|first3=Mark|last4=Kawai|first4=Alison Tse|last5=Marshall|first5=Helen|last6=Macartney|first6=Kristine K.|last7=Joshi|first7=Jyoti|last8=Oneko|first8=Martina|last9=Rose|first9=Annette Elliott|date=2016-12-01|title=Congenital anomalies: Case definition and guidelines for data collection, analysis, and presentation of immunization safety data|journal=Vaccine|volume=34|issue=49|pages=6015–6026|doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.03.047|issn=0264-410X|pmc=5139892|pmid=27435386}}</ref>

==Movement==
{{main|Anatomical terms of motion}}
[[File:Body Movements I.jpg|thumb|right|400px]]
[[File:Body Movements II.jpg|thumb|right|400px]]

[[Joints]], especially [[synovial joints]] allow the body a tremendous range of movements. Each movement at a synovial joint results from the contraction or relaxation of the muscles that are attached to the bones on either side of the articulation. The type of movement that can be produced at a synovial joint is determined by its structural type.

Movement types are generally paired, with one being the opposite of the other. Body movements are always described in relation to the anatomical position of the body: upright stance, with upper limbs to the side of body and palms facing forward.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology " />

===General motion===
Terms describing motion in general include:
* ''[[wikt:flexion|Flexion]]'' and ''[[wikt:extension|extension]]'', which refer to a movement that decreases (flexion) or increases (extension) the angle between body parts. For example, when standing up, the knees are extended.
* ''[[wikt:abduction|Abduction]]'' and ''[[:wikt:adduction|adduction]]'' refers to a motion that pulls a structure away from (abduction) or towards (adduction) the midline of the body or limb. For example, a [[star jump]] requires the legs to be abducted.
* ''Internal rotation'' (or ''medial rotation'') and ''external rotation'' (or ''lateral rotation'') refers to rotation towards (internal) or away from (external) the center of the body. For example, the [[Lotus position]] posture in [[yoga]] requires the legs to be externally rotated.
* ''[[:wikt:elevation|Elevation]]'' and ''[[:wikt:depression|depression]]'' refer to movement in a superior (elevation) or inferior (depression) direction. Primarily refers to movements involving the [[scapula]] and [[mandible]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/types-of-movements-in-the-human-body|title=Types of movements in the human body|website=Kenhub|access-date=2019-09-03}}</ref>

===Special motions of the hands and feet===
These terms refer to movements that are regarded as unique to the hands and feet:<ref name=SCWARTZ2010>{{cite book|last=Swartz|first=Mark H.|title=Textbook of physical diagnosis : history and examination|year=2010|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-1-4160-6203-5|edition=6th}}</ref>{{rp|590–7}}
* ''[[:wikt:dorsiflexion|Dorsiflexion]]'' and ''[[:wikt:plantarflexion|plantarflexion]]'' refers to flexion (dorsiflexion) or extension of the foot at the ankle. For example, plantarflexion occurs when pressing the [[brake pedal]] of a car.
* ''[[:wikt:palmarflexion|Palmarflexion]]'' and ''dorsiflexion'' refer to movement of the flexion (palmarflexion) or extension (dorsiflexion) of the hand at the wrist. For example, [[prayer]] is often conducted with the hands dorsiflexed.
* ''[[:wikt:pronation|Pronation]]'' and ''[[:wikt:supination|supination]]'' refer to rotation of the forearm or foot so that in the [[anatomical position]] the palm or sole is facing anteriorly (supination) or posteriorly (pronation). For example, if a person is holding a bowl of soup in one hand, the hand is "supinated" and the thumb will point away from the body midline and the palm will be superior; if the hands are typing on a computer keyboard, they will be "pronated" with the thumbs toward the body midline and the palms inferior.
* ''[[:wikt:eversion|Eversion]]'' and ''[[:wikt:inversion|inversion]]'' refer to movements that tilt the sole of the foot away from (eversion) or towards (inversion) the midline of the body.

==Muscles==
{{Main|Anatomical terms of muscle}}
[[File:Biceps Muscle CNX.jpg|thumb|The [[biceps brachii]] flex the lower arm. The [[brachioradialis]], in the forearm, and [[brachialis]], located deep to the biceps in the upper arm, are both synergists that aid in this motion.]]

Muscle action that moves the axial skeleton work over a [[joint]] with an [[origin (anatomy)|origin]] and [[insertion (anatomy)|insertion]] of the muscle on respective side. The insertion is on the bone deemed to move towards the origin during muscle contraction. Muscles are often present that engage in several actions of the joint; able to perform for example both flexion and extension of the [[forearm]] as in the [[biceps]] and [[triceps]] respectively.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology " /> This is not only to be able to revert actions of muscles, but also brings on stability of the actions though [[muscle coactivation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Castrogiovanni|first1=Paola|last2=Conway|first2=Nerys|last3=Imbesi|first3=Rosa|last4=Trovato|first4=Francesca Maria|date=September 2016|title=Morphological and Functional Aspects of Human Skeletal Muscle|journal=Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology|volume=1|issue=3|pages=289–302|doi=10.3390/jfmk1030289|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Agonist and antagonist muscles===
The muscle performing an action is the ''agonist'', while the muscle which contraction brings about an opposite action is the ''antagonist''. For example, an extension of the lower arm is performed by the triceps as the agonist and the biceps as the antagonist (which contraction will perform flexion over the same joint). Muscles that work together to perform the same action are called [[Anatomical terms of muscle#Synergist|synergist]]s. In the above example synergists to the biceps can be the [[brachioradialis]] and the [[brachialis muscle]].<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology " />

===Skeletal and smooth muscle===
{{main|Gross anatomy of muscles}}
[[File:Fascicle Muscle Shapes.jpg|thumb|The skeletal muscles of the body typically come in seven different general shapes. This figure shows the human body with the major muscle groups labeled.]]
The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important indicator of its role in the body. One particularly important aspect of gross anatomy of muscles is [[Pennate muscle|pennation]] or lack thereof. In most muscles, all the fibers are oriented in the same direction, running in a line from the origin to the insertion. In pennate muscles, the individual fibers are oriented at an angle relative to the line of action, attaching to the origin and insertion tendons at each end. Because the contracting fibers are pulling at an angle to the overall action of the muscle, the change in length is smaller, but this same orientation allows for more fibers (thus more force) in a muscle of a given size. Pennate muscles are usually found where their length change is less important than maximum force, such as the rectus femoris.<ref name="Moore, Keith L., Dalley, Arthur F., Agur Anne M. R. 2010 29–35">{{cite book | title=Moore's Clinically Oriented Anatomy | publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=Anne M. R. | year=2010 | location=Phildadelphia | pages=29–35 | isbn=978-1-60547-652-0}}</ref>

Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an example of which is the ''[[biceps brachii muscle|biceps brachii]]''. The tough, fibrous epimysium of skeletal muscle is both connected to and continuous with the [[tendon]]s. In turn, the tendons connect to the [[periosteum]] layer surrounding the bones, permitting the transfer of force from the muscles to the skeleton. Together, these fibrous layers, along with tendons and ligaments, constitute the [[deep fascia]] of the body.<ref name="Moore, Keith L., Dalley, Arthur F., Agur Anne M. R. 2010 29–35"/>

==Joints==
{{main|Joint}}
Movement is not limited to only synovial joints, although they allow for most freedom. Muscles also run over [[symphysis]], which allow for movement in for example the [[vertebral column]] by compression of the [[intervertebral disc]]s. Additionally, synovial joints can be divided into different types, depending on their axis of movement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/9-1-classification-of-joints/|title=9.1 Classification of Joints – Anatomy and Physiology|website=opentextbc.ca|access-date=2019-09-03|archive-date=2019-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329031739/https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/9-1-classification-of-joints/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Membranes==
{{main|Serous membrane}}
[[File:Serous Membrane.jpg|thumb|250px|Serous membrane]]

A [[serous membrane]] (also referred to as a serosa) is a thin membrane that covers the walls of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] in the [[thoracic cavity|thoracic]] and [[abdominopelvic cavity|abdominal cavities]]. The serous membranes have two layers; [[Serous membrane#Parietal and visceral layers|parietal and visceral]], surrounding a fluid filled space.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution" /> The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organ (the viscera), and the parietal layer lines the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution"/> For example, the [[pericardium]] is the serous cavity which surrounds the heart.<ref name="Openstax Anatomy & Physiology attribution">{{CC-notice|cc=by4|url=http://cnx.org/contents/14fb4ad7-39a1-4eee-ab6e-3ef2482e3e22@8.24}} {{cite book|last1=Betts|first1=J Gordon|last2=Desaix|first2=Peter|last3=Johnson|first3=Eddie|last4=Johnson|first4=Jody E|last5=Korol|first5=Oksana|last6=Kruse|first6=Dean|last7=Poe|first7=Brandon|last8=Wise|first8=James|last9=Womble|first9=Mark D|last10=Young|first10=Kelly A|url=http://cnx.org/contents/14fb4ad7-39a1-4eee-ab6e-3ef2482e3e22@8.24|title=Anatomy & Physiology|location=Houston|publisher=OpenStax CNX|id=ID: 14fb4ad7-39a1-4eee-ab6e-3ef2482e3e22@8.24|isbn=978-1-93-816813-0|date=February 26, 2016|at=1.6. Anatomical Terminology}}</ref>

==Additional images==
<gallery>
Morris 1933 1.png|Older set of terminology shown in ''Parts of the Human Body: Posterior and Anterior View'' from the 1933 edition of [[Sir Henry Morris, 1st Baronet|Sir Henry Morris']] ''Human Anatomy''. See also [[List of human anatomical regions#Deprecated or older regions|List of human anatomical regions § Deprecated or older regions]].
Anterior view of human female and male, with labels.svg|Labels of human body features displayed on images of actual human bodies, from which body hair and male facial hair has been removed.
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Glossary of medicine]]
* [[Anatomical terms of bone]]
* [[Anatomical terms of muscle]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Calais-Germain |first=Blandine |title=Anatomy of Movement |publisher=Eastland Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-939616-17-6 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Drake |first1=Richard |last2=Vogl |first2=Wayne |last3=Mitchell |first3=Adam |title=Gray's Anatomy for Students |publisher=Churchill Livingstone |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-443-06612-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Martini |first1=Frederic |last2=Timmons |first2=Michael |last3=McKinnley |first3=Michael |title=Human Anatomy |edition=3rd |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-13-010011-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Marieb |first=Elaine |title=Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology |edition=6th |publisher=Addison Wesley Longman |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8053-4940-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Muscolino |first=Joseph E. |title=The Muscular System Manual: The Skeletal Muscles of the Human Body |edition=2nd |publisher=C.V. Mosby |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-323-02523-2 }}
* {{Cite book| edition = 3rd| last = Ngai| first = Steven| title = Understanding Anatomical Latin| access-date = 2015-11-15| year=2006| url = http://meded-portal.ucsd.edu/webportal/forum/fileattachments/anat-latin-3.pdf| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090325003548/http://meded-portal.ucsd.edu/webportal/forum/fileattachments/anat-latin-3.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2009-03-25}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Losardo|first1=R. J.|last2=Valverde Barbato De Prates|first2=N. E.|last3=Arteaga-Martinez|first3=M.|last4=García Peláez|first4=M. I.|last5=Cabral|first5=R. H.|title=International Morphological Terminology (anatomy, histology and embryology): beyond scientific terms.|journal=Journal of Morphological Sciences|volume=34|issue=3|year=2017|pages=130–133|issn=2177-0298|doi=10.4322/jms.109916|doi-access=free}}

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