View source for Saturated fat

{{short description|Fat in which the fatty acid chains have all or predominantly single bonds}}
{{Fats}}

A '''saturated fat''' is a type of [[fat]] in which the [[fatty acid]] chains have all [[single bond]]s between the carbon atoms.  A fat known as a [[glyceride]] is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: a short [[glycerol]] backbone, and fatty acids that each contain a long linear or branched chain of carbon (C) atoms. Along the chain, some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by [[double bond]]s (-C=C-). A double bond along the carbon chain can react with a pair of hydrogen atoms to change into a single -C-C- bond, with each H atom now bonded to one of the two C atoms. Glyceride fats without any carbon chain double bonds are called [[Saturated and unsaturated compounds|saturated]] because they are "saturated with" [[hydrogen]] atoms, having no double bonds available to react with more hydrogen. Saturated fats are generally solid. All fats, both saturated and unsaturated, contain 9kcal per gram making them more energy dense than both proteins and carbohydrates.

Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally [[Unsaturated fat|unsaturated]]. Various foods contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated. Many [[processed foods]] like foods [[deep-fried]] in [[Vegetable oil#Hydrogenation|hydrogenated oil]] and [[sausage]] are high in saturated fat content. Some store-bought [[baked goods]] are as well, especially those containing [[Trans fat|partially hydrogenated oil]]s. Other examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat and [[dietary cholesterol]] include animal fat products such as [[lard]] or [[schmaltz]], fatty meats and [[dairy products]] made with whole or reduced fat milk like [[yogurt]], [[ice cream]], [[cheese]] and [[butter]].

Guidelines released by many medical organizations, including the [[World Health Organization]], have advocated for reduction in the intake of saturated fat to promote health and reduce the risk from [[cardiovascular disease]]s.
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==Fat profiles==
While nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among [[food groups]].  [[Lauric acid|Lauric]] and [[Myristic acid|myristic]] acids are most commonly found in "tropical" oils (e.g., [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernel]], [[Coconut oil|coconut]]) and dairy products.  The saturated fat in meat, [[egg (food)|eggs]], cacao, and [[nut (fruit)|nuts]] is primarily the triglycerides of [[Palmitic acid|palmitic]] and [[Stearic acid|stearic]] acids.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Saturated fat profile of common foods; Esterified fatty acids as percentage of total fat
! style="width:120pt;"| Food !! style="width:70pt;"| [[Lauric acid]] !! style="width:70pt;"| [[Myristic acid]] !! style="width:70pt;"| [[Palmitic acid]] !! style="width:70pt;"| [[Stearic acid]]
|-
| [[Coconut oil]] || 47% || 18% || 9% || 3%
|-
| [[Palm kernel oil]] || 48% || 1% || 44% || 5%
|-
| [[Butter]] || 3% || 11% || 29% || 13%
|-
| [[Ground beef]] || 0% || 4% || 26% || 15%
|-
| [[Salmon]] || 0% || 1% || 29% || 3%
|-
| [[Egg (food)|Egg]] yolks || 0% || 0.3% || 27% || 10%
|-
| [[Cashew]]s || 2% || 1% || 10% || 7%
|-
| [[Soybean oil]] || 0% || 0% || 11% || 4%
|-
| [[Cocoa butter]] || 1% || 0–4% || 24.5–33.7% || 33.7–40.2%
|}

==Examples of saturated fatty acids==
{{Main|List of saturated fatty acids}}
Some common examples of saturated fatty acids:
*[[Lauric acid]] with 12 carbon atoms (contained in [[coconut oil]], [[palm kernel oil]], cow's milk, and [[breast milk]])
*[[Myristic acid]] with 14 carbon atoms (contained in cow's [[milk]] and dairy products)
*[[Palmitic acid]] with 16 carbon atoms (contained in [[palm oil]] and [[meat]])
*[[Stearic acid]] with 18 carbon atoms (also contained in [[meat]] and [[cocoa butter]])
{{Fat composition in different foods (table)|Food=Mustard oil|Saturated=11|Mono-unsaturated=59|Poly-unsaturated=21}}

==Association with diseases==
===Cardiovascular disease===
{{also|Cardiovascular disease#Diet}}
The effect of saturated fat on [[heart disease]] has been extensively studied. Saturated fat intake increases [[low-density lipoprotein cholesterol]] (LDL-C) concentrations. The [[American Heart Association]] have stated that "the scientific rationale for decreasing saturated fat in the diet has been and remains based on well-established effects of saturated fat to raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, a leading cause of atherosclerosis".

Many health authorities, such as the American Heart Association, the [[Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics]], the [[British Dietetic Association]], the [[World Heart Federation]], the British [[National Health Service]], among others, advise that saturated fat is a [[Risk factor (epidemiology)|risk factor]] for cardiovascular diseases. In 2020, the World Health Organization recommended lowering dietary intake of saturated fats to less than 10% of total energy consumption, and increasing intake of unsaturated fats. There is moderate-quality evidence that reducing the proportion of saturated fat in the diet and replacing it with unsaturated fats or carbohydrates for a period of at least two years leads to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular disease.

A 2017 review by the Sax Institute for the [[National Heart Foundation of Australia]] found that saturated fat consumption is associated with higher mortality and that replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat decreases risk of cardiovascular disease events and mortality. In 2019, the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition concluded that higher saturated fat consumption is associated with raised blood cholesterol and increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

A 2021 review found that diets high in saturated fat were associated with higher mortality from all causes, as well as from cardiovascular disease.

A 2023 review by the World Health Organization found convincing evidence that higher saturated fat consumption is associated with higher coronary heart disease incidence and mortality.

A 2023 review by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics found moderate certainty evidence to support reducing saturated fat intake for reduced risk of CVD and CVD events.

A scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 found that partial replacement of saturated fatty acid with [[omega-6 fatty acid]] decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and improves the blood lipid profile.

A 2024 meta-analysis found that odd-chain and longer-chain saturated fatty acids were negatively associated with the risk of cardiovascular disease, including stroke.

===Dyslipidemia===
{{See also|Lipid hypothesis}}
The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for [[dyslipidemia]], which in turn is a risk factor for some types of [[cardiovascular disease]].

Abnormal blood lipid levels {{ndash}} high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL) or low levels of [[high-density lipoprotein]] (HDL) cholesterol {{ndash}} are associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

Meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

There are other pathways involving [[obesity]], [[triglyceride]] levels, [[insulin resistance|insulin sensitivity]], [[endothelium|endothelial function]], and [[thrombogenicity]], among others, that play a role in cardiovascular disease. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels. There is strong evidence that lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids raise LDL-C, while stearic acid is more neutral.

===Type 2 diabetes===
A 2022 review of [[cohort study|cohort studies]] found that the risk of [[type 2 diabetes]] was not associated with dietary intake of total saturated fats, [[palmitic acid]], and [[stearic acid]]. Dietary [[lauric acid]] and [[myristic acid]], present in plant oils and also in dairy fat, were associated with reduced risk of diabetes.

===Cancer===
{{further|Epidemiology and etiology of breast cancer#Specific dietary fatty acids}}

Several reviews of [[Case–control study|case–control studies]] have found that saturated fat intake is associated with [[breast cancer]] risk and mortality. [[Observational study|Observational studies]] have shown that a diet high in saturated fat is associated with increased [[prostate cancer]] risk.

A 2024 systematic review found that higher levels of myristic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid are associated with increased cancer risk.

==Dietary sources==
{{Vegetable oils, composition}}

==Dietary recommendations==
Recommendations to reduce, limit or replace dietary intake of [[trans fats]] and saturated fats, in favor of unsaturated fats, are made by the World Health Organization, American Heart Association, Health Canada, the UK National Health Service, the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, the Australian Department of Health and Aging, the Singapore Ministry of Health, the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, the New Zealand Ministry of Health, and Hong Kong's Department of Health.

In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert consultation report concluded:

{{blockquote|text=The evidence shows that intake of saturated fatty acids is directly related to cardiovascular risk. The traditional target is to restrict the intake of saturated fatty acids to less than 10% of daily energy intake and less than 7% for high-risk groups. If populations are consuming less than 10%, they should not increase that level of intake. Within these limits, the intake of foods rich in myristic and palmitic acids should be replaced by fats with a lower content of these particular fatty acids. In developing countries, however, where energy intake for some population groups may be inadequate, energy expenditure is high and body fat stores are low (BMI <18.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). The amount and quality of fat supply have to be considered keeping in mind the need to meet energy requirements.  Specific sources of saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, provide low-cost energy and may be an important source of energy for the poor.}}

A 2004 statement released by the [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) determined that "Americans need to continue working to reduce saturated fat intake…" In addition, reviews by the [[American Heart Association]] led the Association to recommend reducing saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total calories according to its 2006 recommendations. This concurs with similar conclusions made by the US [[Department of Health and Human Services]], which determined that reduction in saturated fat consumption would positively affect health and reduce the prevalence of heart disease.

The [[United Kingdom]], [[National Health Service]] claims the majority of British people eat too much saturated fat. The [[British Heart Foundation]] also advises people to cut down on saturated fat, and to read labels on the food they buy. The [[British Nutrition Foundation]] have said that based on the totality of available evidence the saturated fatty acids should make up no more than 10% of total dietary energy.

A 2004 review stated that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.

Blanket recommendations to lower saturated fat were criticized at a 2010 conference debate of the [[American Dietetic Association]] for focusing too narrowly on reducing saturated fats rather than emphasizing increased consumption of healthy fats and unrefined carbohydrates.  Concern was expressed over the health risks of replacing saturated fats in the diet with refined carbohydrates, which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease, particularly at the expense of [[polyunsaturated fat]]s which may have health benefits.  None of the panelists recommended heavy consumption of saturated fats, emphasizing instead the importance of overall dietary quality to cardiovascular health.

In a 2017 comprehensive review of the literature and clinical trials, the American Heart Association published a recommendation that saturated fat intake be reduced or replaced by products containing monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, a dietary adjustment that could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.

==Molecular description==
[[File:Myristic acid.svg|thumb|left|500px|Two-dimensional representation of the saturated fatty acid [[myristic acid]]]]
[[File:Myristic-acid-3D-vdW.png|thumb|left|500px|A [[space-filling model]] of the saturated fatty acid [[myristic acid]]]]  The two-dimensional illustration has implicit hydrogen atoms bonded to each of the carbon atoms in the polycarbon tail of the [[myristic acid]] molecule (there are 13 carbon atoms in the tail; 14 carbon atoms in the entire molecule).

Carbon atoms are also implicitly drawn, as they are portrayed as [[Line-line intersection|intersections]] between two straight lines.  "Saturated," in general, refers to a maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to each carbon of the polycarbon tail as allowed by the [[Octet Rule]].  This also means that only [[single bond]]s ([[sigma bonds]]) will be present between adjacent carbon atoms of the tail.
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==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[List of saturated fatty acids]]
*[[List of vegetable oils]]
*[[Food guide pyramid]]
*[[Healthy diet]]
*[[Diet and heart disease]]
*[[Fast food]]
*[[Junk food]]
*[[Advanced glycation endproduct]]
*[[ANGPTL4]]
*[[Iodine value]]
*[[Framingham Heart Study]]
*[[Seven Countries Study]]
*[[Ancel Keys]]
*[[D. Mark Hegsted]]
*[[Western pattern diet]]
{{div col end}}

{{Lipids}}
{{Fatty acids}}
{{Portal bar|Biology|Chemistry}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saturated Fat}}
[[Category:Fatty acids|#]]
[[Category:Lipids]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Edible oil chemistry]]
{{二次利用|date=9 May 2025, at 13:19}}