Beef/ja

生のリブロース

プライムリブロースの一人前

和牛は主に牛肉のために飼育される品種の一例である

Beef（ビーフ）は、ウシ（Bos taurus）の肉に対する料理名である。牛肉は様々な方法で調理され、部位はしばしばステーキに用いられ、異なる焼き加減で調理される。切り落とし肉は、多くのハンバーガーに見られるように挽肉にされることが多い。牛肉にはタンパク質、鉄分、ビタミンB12が含まれている。他の種類の赤身肉と同様に、過剰な摂取は大腸がんや冠動脈性心疾患のリスク上昇と関連しており、特に加工肉の場合に顕著である。牛肉は環境への影響が大きく、森林破壊の主因であり、あらゆる農業製品の中で最も高い温室効果ガス排出量を伴う。

先史時代において人類はオーロックスを狩猟し、後に家畜化した。それ以来、肉用牛の多くの品種が、肉の品質や量を目的として選択交配された。今日、牛肉は豚肉、鶏肉に次いで世界で3番目に多く消費されている肉である。2018年時点で、アメリカ合衆国、ブラジル、中国が最大の牛肉生産国であった。

一部の宗教や文化では牛肉の消費を禁じており、特にインド系宗教であるヒンドゥー教に顕著である。仏教徒も動物の殺生に反対するが、不正な食事に関する教義は持たない。

語源

beefという語はラテン語のbōsに由来し、cowは中英語のcouに由来する（両語は同じインド・ヨーロッパ語族の語根*gʷou-を持つ）。

これは、動物名（主にゲルマン系語源）とその肉の名称（ロマンス系語源）との間に見られる、英語における典型的な二分法の一例である。同様の例には、pig/pork（豚/豚肉）、deer/venison（鹿/鹿肉）、sheep/mutton（羊/羊肉）、chicken/poultry（鶏/鶏肉）、およびあまり一般的ではないgoat/chevon（山羊/山羊肉）がある。beefは後期ラテン語のbovīnusを通じてbovineと同根である。beefの複数形はまれにbeevesとされる。

歴史

人類は先史時代からウシ属の肉を食しており、ラスコーに見られるような初期の洞窟壁画には、オーロックスの狩猟の場面が描かれている。人々は牛を家畜化し、牛肉、乳、革を容易に得られるようにした。牛は進化の歴史の中で少なくとも2度家畜化されている。最初の家畜化は約10,500年前にBos taurusが進化したときに起こった。2度目はより最近の約7,000年前にインド亜大陸でBos indicusが進化したときである。さらに8,500年前にBos africanusという第3の種がアフリカで発生した可能性もあり、第3の家畜化があった可能性がある。

アメリカ合衆国では、牛肉産業の発展は南西部の拡大によるところが大きい。1848年の米墨戦争により草地を獲得し、その後この地域および中西部からプレーンズ・インディアンを追放することで、アメリカの家畜産業が始まり、主に野生化および半野生化したロングホーン牛の飼い慣らしから始まった。シカゴとニューヨーク市は、これらの発展の恩恵を家畜市場や肉市場において最初に受けた都市である。

生産

ウシは世界で3番目に多く消費される肉である

牛肉（およびバッファロー肉）の生産量は過去60年間で大幅に増加した

牛肉は農産品の中で最も排出強度が高い

肉用牛は、肥育場、放牧、牧場経営、育成牛生産、集約畜産など、様々な方法で飼育および給餌される。一般に工場式農場と呼ばれる集中畜産施設（CAFO）は、牛肉の需要に応えるためによく用いられる。CAFOはアメリカの市場に供給される牛の70.4%、およびアメリカ全体の肉の99%を供給している。CAFOにおける糞便の蔓延により、食品供給における大腸菌汚染の原因にもなり得る。これらの大腸菌汚染の中には、人間に有害となる可能性のある大腸菌 O157:H7株も含まれており、牛はこの株を消化管内に保持しているのが一般的である。高密度飼育による不衛生な環境のもう一つの結果として、抗生物質の使用が増加している。天然資源保護協議会によるFDAの販売データの分析によると、アメリカにおける医療上重要な抗生物質の使用の42%が牛に対するものであり、抗生物質耐性菌の発生が懸念されている。2023年には、生産量が2035年にピークに達すると予測されている。

環境への影響

詳細は「:en:Environmental impact of meat production」、「:en:Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest」、および「:en:Cattle」を参照

牛肉や羊肉を食べなければ、世界の農地面積はほぼ半減する可能性がある

食物の種類ごとの平均温室効果ガス排出量

食物の種類	温室効果ガス排出量（g CO2-Ceq/gタンパク質）
反芻動物の肉	62
閉鎖循環型水産養殖	30
底引き網漁業	26
非循環型水産養殖	12
豚肉	10
鶏肉	10
乳製品	9.1
非底引き網漁業	8.6
卵	6.8
でんぷん質根菜	1.7
小麦	1.2
トウモロコシ	1.2
豆類	0.25

食物の種類ごとの平均土地利用

食物の種類	土地利用（m2年/100gタンパク質）
羊肉	185
Beef	164
チーズ	41
豚肉	11
鶏肉	7.1
卵	5.7
養殖魚	3.7
ピーナッツ	3.5
エンドウ豆	3.4
豆腐	2.2

牛肉の消費は自然環境に多くの脅威をもたらす。農業製品の中でも、牛肉は最も多くの土地と水を必要とし、温室効果ガス（GHG）排出、大気汚染、水質汚染が最も多い。2021年の研究では、生産、輸送、消費といったライフサイクル全体にわたるGHG排出量を合算し、2010年には牛肉が約40億トン（人為的GHG排出の9%）に寄与したと推定している。ウシは地球上の土地の約26%を放牧地として占有しており、これはウシの飼料生産のための広大な農地を含まない。FAOによれば、「牧畜による森林破壊は、中南米の熱帯雨林における一部の独自の動植物種の喪失と、大気中への炭素の放出の主な原因の一つである」とされている。牛肉はアマゾンの森林伐採の主因でもあり、転換された土地の約80%がウシの飼育に使われている。1970年以降アマゾンで伐採された土地の91%は牧畜に転換されている。2005年から2013年までの世界の森林破壊の41%は牛肉生産の拡大によるものである。これは代謝可能エネルギー摂取量が高い場合の正味維持エネルギーに対する正味増加エネルギーの比率が高いためである。牛肉（生体重）1単位の生産に必要な飼料の比率は7:1から43:1とされており、鶏肉の約2:1と比較すると著しく高い。ただし、このような一般化には飼料の質に関する仮定が含まれている。例えば、牛1kgの生体重を生産するには、高タンパクかつ代謝可能エネルギー含有量の高い飼料が4～5kg、または質の低い飼料で20kg以上必要となる可能性がある。アメリカ人の食事において牛肉を大豆（ウシの飼料源として一般的）に置き換えるだけで、2020年の温室効果ガス削減目標の46～74%を達成できるとする試算もある。2021年のCSIROの実験では、海藻Asparagopsis taxiformisを飼料の3%に含めた場合、メタン排出を80%削減できる可能性が示された。このような飼料はまだ実験段階だが、世界で広く使われている飼料においても効率性には大きなばらつきがある。ある研究では、現在の飼料構成、生産地域、土地の修復を組み合わせることで、追加費用をかけずに年間34〜85%（612〜1,506 MtCO2e yr−1）の温室効果ガス削減が可能になるとした。

一部の科学者は、牛肉の需要が顕著な生物多様性の喪失に寄与していると主張しており、その主因は森林破壊と生息地の破壊である。アマゾン地域の大部分のような種多様性の高い生息地が、食肉生産のために農地に転換されている。2019年のIPBESの生物多様性および生態系サービスに関する世界評価報告書でも、牛肉産業が生物多様性の喪失に大きな役割を果たしているとされている。世界の土地の約25〜40%は家畜飼育に使われており、その多くがウシである。

認証

一部の牛肉には、認定アンガスビーフ、認定ヘレフォードビーフのような品種、神戸ビーフ、Carne de Ávila、Belgian Blueのような原産地、あるいは有機、牧草飼育、コーシャー、ハラールのような飼育方法、給餌、屠殺方法などの基準に基づいて特別な認証や指定を受ける場合がある。いくつかの国では、屠殺後に観察された肉の品質に基づき、牛肉の分類および販売の表示を規制している。

世界統計

2021年の国別牛肉生産量

2018年には、アメリカ合衆国（1,222万トン）、ブラジル（990万トン）、中国（646万トン）が最も多く牛肉を生産した。2019年の牛肉輸出上位3か国は、オーストラリア（全体の14.8%）、アメリカ（13.4%）、ブラジル（12.6%）であった。牛肉生産は日本、アルゼンチン、ウルグアイ、カナダ、パラグアイ、メキシコ、ベラルーシ、ニカラグアの経済にも重要である。

牛と牛肉の輸出国トップ5

2020年現在、ブラジルは世界最大の牛肉輸出国であり、次いでオーストラリア、アメリカ合衆国、インド（水牛肉のみを含む）、アルゼンチンが続いた。ブラジル、オーストラリア、アメリカ合衆国、インドで世界の牛肉輸出量の約61%を占めた。

水牛の肉を含む牛肉の輸出量(トン単位)

ランキング	国	2020	世界の%	国	2016年	世界の%
1	ブラジル	2,539,000	23.50	ブラジル	1,850,000	19.60
2	オーストラリア	1,476,000	13.66	インド	1,850,000	19.60
3	米国	1,341,000	12.41	オーストラリア	1,385,000	14.67
4	インド	1,284,000	11.88	米国	1,120,000	11.87
5	アルゼンチン	819,000	7.58	ニュージーランド	580,000	6.14

Top 10 cattle and beef producing countries

The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year. Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year.

Beef production (1000 Metric Tons CWE)

Rank	Country	2009	2010	% Chg	Country	2019	2020	Change	%Chg
1	United States	11,889	11,789	−0.8	United States	12,384	12,379	-5,000	-0.04
2	Brazil	8,935	9,300	4	Brazil	10,200	10,100	-100,000	-1
3	EU-27	7,970	7,920	−0.6	EU-27	7,878	7,810	-68,000	-0.9
4	China	5,764	5,550	−4	China	6,670	6,720	50,000	0.8
5	Argentina	3,400	2,800	−18	India	4,270	3,760	-510,000	-12
6	India	2,610	2,760	6	Argentina	3,125	3,230	105,000	3
7	Australia	2,100	2,075	−1	Australia	2,432	2,123	-309,000	-12
8	Mexico	1,700	1,735	2	Mexico	2,027	2,079	52,000	3%
9	Russia	1,285	1,260	−2	Pakistan	1,820	1,820	NIL	NIL
10	Pakistan	1,226	1,250	2	Russia	1,374	1,378	4,000	0.3

National cattle herds (Per 1000 Head)

Rank	Country	2009	2010	% Chg
1	India	57,960	58,300	0.6
2	Brazil	49,150	49,400	0.5
3	China	42,572	41,000	−4
4	United States	35,819	35,300	−1.4
5	EU	30,400	30,150	−0.8
6	Argentina	12,300	13,200	7
7	Australia	9,213	10,158	10
8	Russia	7,010	6,970	−0.6
9	Mexico	6,775	6,797	0.3
10	Colombia	5,675	5,675	0.0

Production losses caused by climate change

Most of the top 10 beef-producing countries are likely to see lower production with greater temperatures (left) and heat stress (right).

この節は 抜粋 Effects of climate change on livestock § Cattle.[編集]

One of the vectors of bacteria which cause mastitis are Calliphora blowflies, whose numbers are predicted to increase with continued warming, especially in the temperate countries like the United Kingdom. Rhipicephalus microplus, a tick which primarily parasitises cattle, could become established in the currently temperate countries once their autumns and winters become warmer by about 2–2.75 °C (3.60–4.95 °F). On the other hand, the brown stomach worm, Ostertagia ostertagi, is predicted to become much less prevalent in cattle as the warming progresses.

By 2017, it was already reported that farmers in Nepal kept fewer cattle due to the losses imposed by a longer hot season. Cow-calf ranches in Southeast Wyoming are expected to suffer greater losses in the future as the hydrological cycle becomes more variable and affects forage growth. Even though the annual mean precipitation is not expected to change much, there will be more unusually dry years as well as unusually wet years, and the negatives will outweigh the positives. Keeping smaller herds to be more flexible when dry years hit was suggested as an adaptation strategy. Since more variable and therefore less predictable precipitation is one of the well-established effects of climate change on the water cycle, similar patterns were later established across the rest of the United States,

調理

Cuts

Main article: Cut of beef

Most beef can be used as is by merely cutting into certain parts, such as roasts, short ribs or steak (filet mignon, sirloin steak, rump steak, rib steak, rib eye steak, hanger steak, etc.), while other cuts are processed (corned beef or beef jerky). Trimmings, on the other hand, which are usually mixed with meat from older, leaner (therefore tougher) cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in some varieties called blood sausage. Other parts that are eaten include other muscles and offal, such as the oxtail, liver, tongue, tripe from the reticulum or rumen, glands (particularly the pancreas and thymus, referred to as sweetbread), the heart, the brain (although forbidden where there is a danger of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, BSE, commonly referred to as mad cow disease), the kidneys, and the tender testicles of the bull (known in the United States as calf fries, prairie oysters, or Rocky Mountain oysters). Some intestines are cooked and eaten as is, but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock. Meat from younger cows (calves) is called veal. Beef from steers and heifers is similar.

Beef is first divided into primal cuts, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from which steaks and other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from hoof and horn increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as "brisket" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.

Aging and tenderization

Main article: Beef aging

Main articles: Meat § Conditioning, Meat preservation, and Meat tenderness

To improve tenderness of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous proteolytic enzymes to weaken structural and myofibrillar proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.

Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.

Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes (papain, bromelin or ficin) can be applied or injected to augment the endogenous enzymes; this can be done with purified enzyme or by using a marinade including ingredients that naturally contain the enzyme (e.g. papaya for papain or pineapple for bromelin). Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.

Cooking methods

These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs.

Dry heat

Roast beef

Method	Description
Grilling	Cooking the beef over or under a high radiant heat source, generally in excess of 340 °C (650 °F). This leads to searing of the surface of the beef, which creates a flavorsome crust. In Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, the UK, Germany and The Netherlands, grilling, particularly over charcoal, is sometimes known as barbecuing, often shortened to "BBQ". When cooked over charcoal, this method can also be called charbroiling.
Smoking	A technique of cooking that involves cooking meat for long periods of time at low temperatures with smoke from a wood fire.
Broiling	A term used in North America. It is similar to grilling, but with the heat source always above the meat. Elsewhere this is considered a way of grilling.
Griddle	Meat may be cooked on a hot metal griddle. A little oil or fat may be added to inhibit sticking; the dividing line when the method becomes shallow frying is not well-defined.
Roasting	A way of cooking meat in a hot oven, producing roast beef. Liquid is not usually added; the beef may be basted by fat on the top, or by spooning hot fat from the oven pan over the top. A gravy may be made from the cooking juices, after skimming off excess fat. Roasting is suitable for thicker pieces of meat; the other methods listed are usually for steaks and similar cuts.

Internal temperature

Beef rump steak on grill pan, cooked medium rare

Main article: Doneness

Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with a meat thermometer. Beef can be cooked using the sous-vide method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such as broiling or roasting it is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.

Frying

Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically by shallow frying, although deep frying may be used, often for meat enrobed with breadcrumbs as in milanesas or finger steaks. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as in stir frying, typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hot wok. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.

Moist heat

Moist heat cooking methods include braising, pot roasting, stewing and sous-vide. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.

• Stewing or simmering

simmering meat, whole or cut into bite-size pieces, in a water-based liquid with flavorings. This technique may be used as part of pressure cooking.

• Braising

cooking meats, in a covered container, with small amounts of liquids (usually seasoned or flavored). Unlike stewing, braised meat is not fully immersed in liquid, and usually is browned before the oven step.

• Sous-vide

Sous-vide, French for "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.

Beef roasted with vinegar and sliced with spiced paste, often called "cold beef"

Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just simmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since thermostatic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, 52 °C (126 °F) (sous-vide) to 90 °C (194 °F) (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough collagen in connective tissue into gelatin through hydrolysis, with minimal toughening.

With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, pathogens, such as bacteria will be killed, and pasteurization can be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo searing in a very hot pan, grilling or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).

Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)

Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. In hot pot cooking, such as shabu-shabu, very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. In fondue bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorful sauces to complement the meat.

Raw beef

Thin slices of raw beef for hot pot cooking

Steak tartare is a French dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.

The Belgian or Dutch dish filet américain is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich. Kibbeh nayyeh is a similar Lebanese and Syrian dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish called tire siga or kitfo is eaten (upon availability).

Carpaccio of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.

Yukhoe is a variety of hoe, raw dishes in Korean cuisine which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used for yukhoe is tender rump steak. For the seasoning, soy sauce, sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice of bae (Korean pear) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.

Cured, smoked, and dried beef

Beef curry from Bangladesh

Bresaola is an air-dried, salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated in Valtellina, a valley in the Alps of northern Italy's Lombardy region. Bündnerfleisch is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland. Chipped beef is an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."

Beef jerky is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.

Biltong is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.

Pastrami is often made from beef; raw beef is salted, then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, and smoked.

Corned beef is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasoned brine. The corn in corned beef refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The term corned beef can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considered delicatessen fare.

Spiced beef is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at Christmas in Ireland. It is a form of salt beef, cured with spices and saltpetre, intended to be boiled or broiled in Guinness or a similar stout, and then optionally roasted for a period after. There are various other recipes for pickled beef. Sauerbraten is a German variant.

Consumption

Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively.

Nutritional content

Ground Beef 15% fat, broiled

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,047 kJ (250 kcal)
Carbohydrates	0 g
Starch	0 g
Dietary fiber	0 g
Fat	15 g
Saturated	5.887 g
Monounsaturated	6.662 g
Polyunsaturated	0.485 g
Protein	26 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Thiamine (B1) 4% 0.046 mg Riboflavin (B2) 14% 0.176 mg Niacin (B3) 34% 5.378 mg Vitamin B6 23% 0.383 mg Folate (B9) 2% 9 μg Vitamin B12 110% 2.64 μg Choline 15% 82.4 mg Vitamin D 1% 7 IU Vitamin E 3% 0.45 mg Vitamin K 1% 1.2 μg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 1% 18 mg Copper 94% 0.85 mg Iron 14% 2.6 mg Magnesium 5% 21 mg Manganese 1% 0.012 mg Phosphorus 16% 198 mg Potassium 11% 318 mg Selenium 39% 21.6 μg Sodium 3% 72 mg Zinc 57% 6.31 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	58 g
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of niacin, vitamin B12, iron and zinc, but also contains high amounts of saturated fat. Red meat is the most significant dietary source of carnitine and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source of creatine. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.

Health impact

See also: Health concerns associated with meat and Red meat § Health effects

Cancer

Consumption of red meat, and especially processed red meat, is known to increase the risk of bowel cancer and some other cancers.

Coronary heart disease

A 2010 meta-analysis found that processed red meat (and all processed meat) was correlated with a higher risk of coronary heart disease, although based on studies that separated the two, this meta-analysis found that red meat intake was not associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease. As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.

Dioxins

Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized with sewage sludge. Elevated dioxins may be present in meat from these cattle.

E. coli recalls

Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due to Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination:

• January 2011, One Great Burger expands recall.
• February 2011, American Food Service, a Pico Rivera, Calif. establishment, is recalling approximately 1,440 kg (3,170 lb) of fresh ground beef patties and other bulk packages of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7.
• March 2011, 6,400 kg (14,000 lb) beef recalled by Creekstone Farms Premium Beef due to E. coli concerns.
• April 2011, National Beef Packaging recalled more than 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.
• May 2011, Irish Hills Meat Company of Michigan, a Tipton, Mich., establishment is recalling approximately 410 kg (900 lb) of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7.
• September 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 59,500 kg (131,100 lb) of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.
• December 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 18,000 kg (40,000 lb) of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.
• January 2012, Hannaford Supermarkets recalled all ground beef with sell by dates 17 December 2011 or earlier.
• September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated with E. coli 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History.

Mad cow disease

Main article: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

In 1984, the use of meat and bone meal in cattle feed resulted in the world's first outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or, colloquially, mad cow disease) in the United Kingdom.

Deaths in the UK caused by vCJD from the start of the BSE outbreak up until 2009. MM and MV refer to the two genotypes of vCJD.

Since then, other countries have had outbreaks of BSE:

• In May 2003, after a cow with BSE was discovered in Alberta, Canada, the American border was closed to live Canadian cattle, but was reopened in early 2005.
• In June 2005, Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the United States Department of Agriculture animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in Texas. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that "privileged information." The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time when Oprah Winfrey raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show which aired 16 April 1996.

In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban. In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle,

Restrictions

Religious and cultural prohibitions

Main article: Cattle in religion and mythology

A pamphlet against the practice of cow slaughter

Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits cow beef known as Go-Maans in Hindi. Bovines have a sacred status in India especially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.

Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society. Since the Vedic period, cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming like ploughing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent of Jainism and the Gupta period. In medieval India, Maharaja Ranjit Singh issued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.

For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.

In ancient China, the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role in agriculture. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.

During the season of Lent, Orthodox Christians and Catholics periodically give up meat and poultry (and sometimes dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. Observant Jews and Muslims may not eat any meat or poultry which has not been slaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws.

Legal prohibition

India

Main article: Cattle slaughter in India

Most of the North Indian states prohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons. Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from their diets. Article 48 of the Constitution of India mandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle. Article 47 of the Constitution of India provides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as "India's bovine burden."

In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food. Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export. In 2017, India sought a total "beef ban" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market.

Nepal

The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law.

キューバ

2003年、キューバは牛乳および乳製品の深刻な不足のため、牛の屠殺を禁止した。2021年4月14日、この禁止令は緩和され、国家の割り当てを満たし、群れの健康が確保できる限り、牧場主が自由にできるようにした。

関連項目

• アルゼンチン牛肉
• ビーフ・オーストラリア
• 牛肉ホルモン論争
• ウシ肉・牛乳因子
• 水牛肉
• 肉食主義
• 食肉生産が環境に与える影響
• 牛肉料理の一覧
• 食肉動物の一覧
• ピンクスライム
• 子牛肉

外部リンク

• [[wikibooks:Cookbook:Beef |]] at the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject