imported>Fire: Created page with "{{short description|Clade of seed plants}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Seed plants | image = PinusSylvestris.jpg | image_caption = Scots pine, ''Pinus sylvestris'', a member of the Pinophyta | image2 = Acer pseudoplatanus Chaltenbrunnen.jpg | image2_caption = Sycamore maple, ''Acer pseudoplatanus'', a member of the Eudicots | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Famennian|Present}} | taxon = Spermatophytes/Plantae | authority = | subdivision_ranks = '''Division..."

2023-01-03T13:31:54Z

Created page with "{{short description|Clade of seed plants}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Seed plants | image = PinusSylvestris.jpg | image_caption = Scots pine, ''Pinus sylvestris'', a member of the Pinophyta | image2 = Acer pseudoplatanus Chaltenbrunnen.jpg | image2_caption = Sycamore maple, ''Acer pseudoplatanus'', a member of the Eudicots | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Famennian|Present}} | taxon = Spermatophytes/Plantae | authority = | subdivision_ranks = '''Division..."

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{{short description|Clade of seed plants}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Seed plants
| image = PinusSylvestris.jpg
| image_caption = Scots pine, ''[[Pinus sylvestris]]'', a member of the [[Pinophyta]]
| image2 = Acer pseudoplatanus Chaltenbrunnen.jpg
| image2_caption = Sycamore maple, ''[[Acer pseudoplatanus]]'', a member of the [[Eudicots]]
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Famennian|Present}}
| taxon = Spermatophytes/Plantae
| authority =
| subdivision_ranks = '''Divisions'''
| subdivision = *[[Gymnosperm|Gymnospermae]]
**[[Cycadophyta]]
**[[Ginkgophyta]]
**[[Pinophyta]]
**[[Gnetophyta]]
**[[Bennettitales]][[extinction|†]]
*[[Flowering plant|Angiospermae]]
*[[Pteridospermatophyta]][[extinction|†]]
| synonyms =
*Phanerogamae
*Phaenogamae
}}
A '''spermatophyte''' ({{lit|seed-bearing plants}}; {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|σπέρματος}}'' ({{grc-transl|σπέρματος}})|seed||''{{wikt-lang|grc|φυτόν}}'' (phytón)|plant}}), also known as '''phanerogam''' (taxon '''Phanerogamae''') or '''phaenogam''' (taxon '''Phaenogamae'''), is any [[plant]] that produces [[seed]]s, hence the alternative name '''seed plant'''. Spermatophytes are a subset of the [[embryophyte]]s or land plants. They include most familiar types of plants, including all [[flowers]] and most [[trees]], but exclude some other types of plants such as [[ferns]], [[mosses]], [[algae]].

The term ''phanerogams'' or ''phanerogamae'' is derived from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[wikt:φανερός|φανερός]]}} ({{transl|grc|phanerós}}), meaning "visible", in contrast to the [[cryptogamae]] ({{etymology|grc|''[[wikt:κρυπτός|κρυπτός]]'' (kruptós)|hidden}}), together with the [[suffix]] {{lang|grc|[[wikt:γαμέω|γαμέω]]}} ({{transl|grc|gaméō}}), meaning "to marry". These terms distinguished those plants with hidden sexual organs (cryptogamae) from those with visible sexual organs (phanerogamae).

==Description==

The extant spermatophytes form five divisions, the first four of which are traditionally grouped as [[gymnosperm]]s, plants that have unenclosed, "naked seeds":<ref name=Judd>{{cite book |first1=Walter S.|last1=Judd|first2=Christopher S.|last2=Campbell |first3=Elizabeth A. |last3=Kellogg |first4=Peter F. |last4=Stevens |first5=Michael J. |last5=Donoghue |title=Plant systematics, a phylogenetic approach |edition=2 |date=2002 |publisher=Sinauer Associates Inc. |location=Sunderland MA, USA |isbn=0-87893-403-0 }}</ref>{{rp|172}}

* [[Cycadophyta]], the cycads, a subtropical and tropical group of plants,
* [[Ginkgophyta]], which includes a single living species of tree in the genus ''[[Ginkgo]]'',
* [[Pinophyta]], the conifers, which are [[conifer cone|cone-bearing]] trees and shrubs, and
* [[Gnetophyta]], the gnetophytes, various woody plants in the relict genera ''[[Ephedra (genus)|Ephedra]]'', ''[[Gnetum]]'', and ''[[Welwitschia]]''.

The fifth extant division is the [[flowering plant]]s, also known as angiosperms or magnoliophytes, the largest and most diverse group of spermatophytes:
* [[Angiosperms]], the flowering plants, possess seeds enclosed in a [[fruit]], unlike gymnosperms.

In addition to the five living taxa listed above, the fossil record contains evidence of many [[extinct]] taxa of seed plants, among those:
* [[Pteridospermae]], the so-called "seed ferns", were one of the earliest successful groups of land plants, and forests dominated by seed ferns were prevalent in the late [[Paleozoic]].
* ''[[Glossopteris]]'' was the most prominent tree genus in the ancient southern supercontinent of [[Gondwana]] during the [[Permian]] period.
By the [[Triassic]] period, seed ferns had declined in ecological importance, and representatives of modern gymnosperm groups were abundant and dominant through the end of the [[Cretaceous]], when the [[angiosperms]] radiated.

==Evolutionary history==
{{Main|Evolutionary history of plants#Seeds}}

A [[Paleopolyploidy#Whole genome duplication|whole genome duplication event]] in the ancestor of seed plants occurred about {{ma|319}}.<ref name="Jiao2011">Jiao Y, Wickett NJ, Ayyampalayam S, Chanderbali AS, Landherr L, Ralph PE, Tomsho LP, Hu Y, Liang H, [[Pamela S. Soltis|Soltis PS]], [[Douglas E. Soltis|Soltis DE]], Clifton SW, Schlarbaum SE, Schuster SC, Ma H, Leebens-Mack J, Depamphilis CW (2011) Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms. Nature</ref> This gave rise to a series of evolutionary changes that resulted in the origin of seed plants.

A middle [[Devonian]] (385-million-year-old) [[transitional fossil|precursor]] to seed plants from [[Belgium]] has been identified predating the earliest seed plants by about 20 million years. ''[[Runcaria]]'', small and radially symmetrical, is an integumented [[megasporangium]] surrounded by a cupule. The [[megasporangium]] bears an unopened distal extension protruding above the mutlilobed [[integument]]. It is suspected that the extension was involved in anemophilous (wind) [[pollination]]. ''Runcaria'' sheds new light on the sequence of character acquisition leading to the seed. ''Runcaria'' has all of the qualities of seed plants except for a solid [[seed coat]] and a system to guide the pollen to the seed.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Science Magazine | work = Runcaria, a Middle Devonian Seed Plant Precursor | publisher = American Association for the Advancement of Science | year = 2011 | url = https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1102491 | access-date = March 22, 2011 | archive-date = February 24, 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110224214858/http://www.sciencemag.org/content/306/5697/856.abstract | url-status = live }}</ref>

==Relationships and nomenclature==
{{further|Gnetophyta#Classification}}
Seed-bearing plants are a [[subclade]] of the [[vascular plants]] (tracheophytes) and were traditionally divided into [[angiosperm]]s, or flowering plants, and [[gymnosperm]]s, which includes the gnetophytes, cycads, ginkgo, and conifers. Older morphological studies believed in a close relationship between the gnetophytes and the angiosperms,<ref name="palmer">{{cite journal | title = The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view |first1=Jeffrey D. |last1=Palmer|author-link1=Jeffrey D. Palmer |first2=Douglas E. |last2=Soltis |first3=Mark W. |last3=Chase |author-link3=Mark Wayne Chase | journal = American Journal of Botany | year = 2004 | volume = 91 | pages = 1437–1445 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437 | issue=10 | pmid = 21652302| doi-access=free }}</ref> in particular based on [[vessel element]]s. However, molecular studies (and some more recent morphological<ref>{{cite journal | journal = The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society | pages = 169–209 | title = Seed ferns and the origin of angiosperms | author = James A. Doyle | volume = 133 | issue = 1 |date=January 2006 | doi = 10.3159/1095-5674(2006)133[169:SFATOO]2.0.CO;2 | issn = 1095-5674 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Coiro|first1=Mario|last2=Chomicki|first2=Guillaume|last3=Doyle|first3=James A.|date=n.d.|title=Experimental signal dissection and method sensitivity analyses reaffirm the potential of fossils and morphology in the resolution of the relationship of angiosperms and Gnetales|journal=Paleobiology|volume=44|issue=3|language=en|pages=490–510|doi=10.1017/pab.2018.23|s2cid=91488394|issn=0094-8373}}</ref> and fossil<ref>{{cite journal | title = A New Permian Gnetalean Cone as Fossil Evidence for Supporting Current Molecular Phylogeny | author = Zi-Qiang Wang | journal = Annals of Botany | year = 2004 | volume = 94 | issue = 2 | pages = 281–288 | doi = 10.1093/aob/mch138 | pmid = 15229124 | pmc = 4242163 }}</ref> papers) have generally shown a [[clade]] of [[gymnosperm]]s, with the gnetophytes in or near the conifers. For example, one common proposed set of relationships is known as the ''gne-pine hypothesis'' and looks like:<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chaw | first1 = Shu-Miaw | last2 = Parkinson | first2 = Christopher L. | last3 = Cheng | first3 = Yuchang | last4 = Vincent | first4 = Thomas M. | last5 = Palmer | first5 = Jeffrey D. |author-link5=Jeffrey D. Palmer| year = 2000 | title = Seed plant phylogeny inferred from all three plant genomes: Monophyly of extant gymnosperms and origin of Gnetales from conifers | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 97 | issue = 8| pages = 4086–4091 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.97.8.4086 | pmid=10760277 | pmc=18157| bibcode = 2000PNAS...97.4086C | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bowe | first1 = L. M.| last2 = Michelle | first2 = L. | last3 = Coat | first3 = Gwénaële | last4 = Claude | year = 2000 | title = Phylogeny of seed plants based on all three genomic compartments: Extant gymnosperms are monophyletic and Gnetales' closest relatives are conifers | journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | volume = 97 | issue = 8| pages = 4092–4097 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.97.8.4092 | pmid=10760278 | pmc=18159| bibcode = 2000PNAS...97.4092B| doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Soltis | first1 = Douglas E. | last2 = Soltis | first2 = Pamela S. | last3 = Zanis | first3 = Michael J. | year = 2002 | title = Phylogeny of seed plants based on evidence from eight genes | journal = [[American Journal of Botany]] | volume = 89 | issue = 10 | pages = 1670–1681 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.89.10.1670 | pmid = 21665594 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

{{clade |style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%|
1=[[angiosperm]]s (flowering plants)|
label2=[[gymnosperm]]s |
2={{clade |
1=[[cycad]]s <ref>{{cite journal | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | year = 2007 | volume = 24 | issue =6 | pages = 1366–1379 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msm059 | title = Chloroplast Genome (cpDNA) of Cycas taitungensis and 56 cp Protein-Coding Genes of Gnetum parvifolium: Insights into cpDNA Evolution and Phylogeny of Extant Seed Plants | author = Chung-Shien Wu, Ya-Nan Wang, Shu-Mei Liu and Shu-Miaw Chaw | pmid = 17383970 | doi-access = free }}</ref> |
2=''[[Ginkgo]]'' |
3={{clade |
1={{clade |
1=[[Pinaceae]] (the pine family) |
2=[[gnetophytes]]
}} |
2=other conifers
}}
}}
}}

However, the relationships between these groups should not be considered settled.<ref name="palmer"/><ref>{{cite journal | title = Dating Dispersal and Radiation in the Gymnosperm Gnetum (Gnetales)—Clock Calibration When Outgroup Relationships Are Uncertain |author1=Won, Hyosig |author2=Renner, Susanne | journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 55 | issue = 4 |date=August 2006 | pages = 610–622 | doi = 10.1080/10635150600812619 | pmid = 16969937 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Other classifications group all the seed plants in a single [[division (botany)|division]], with [[class (biology)|classes]] for the five groups:
*Division '''Spermatophyta'''
**'''[[Cycad]]opsida''', the cycads
**'''[[Ginkgo]]opsida''', the ginkgo
**'''[[Pinopsida]]''', the conifers, ("Coniferopsida")
**'''[[Gnetophytes|Gnetopsida]]''', the gnetophytes
**'''[[Magnoliopsida]]''', the [[flowering plant]]s, or '''Angiospermopsida'''

A more modern classification ranks these groups as separate divisions (sometimes under the '''Superdivision Spermatophyta'''):
*'''[[Cycad]]ophyta''', the cycads
*'''[[Ginkgo]]phyta''', the ginkgo
*'''[[Pinophyta]]''', the conifers
*'''[[Gnetophytes|Gnetophyta]]''', the gnetophytes
*'''[[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]''', the [[flowering plant]]s

An alternative phylogeny of spermatophytes based on the work by Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015<ref>{{cite book | author=Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni | year=2015 | title=Modern plant systematics | pages=685 | publisher=Liga-Pres| isbn=978-966-397-276-3 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.4745.6164}}</ref> with plant taxon authors from Anderson, Anderson & Cleal 2007<ref>{{cite book | author=Anderson, Anderson & Cleal | year=2007 | title=Brief history of the gymnosperms: classification, biodiversity, phytogeography and ecology | journal=Strelitzia | volume=20 | pages=280 | publisher=SANBI| isbn=978-1-919976-39-6 }}</ref> showing the relationship of extinct clades.

{{barlabel |size=8 |at=1 |label=[[Seed ferns]]|cladogram=
{{Clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%
|label1=[[Spermatophyta|Spermatophytina]]
|1={{Clade
|1=†[[Moresnetiopsida]] Doweld 2001 |barbegin1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|1=†[[Lyginopteridopsida]] Novák 1961 emend. Anderson, Anderson & Cleal 2007|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|1=†[[Pachytestopsida]] Doweld 2001|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|1=†[[Callistophytales]] Rothwell 1981 emend. Anderson, Anderson & Cleal 2007|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|1=†[[Peltaspermopsida]] Doweld 2001|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|1=†[[Umkomasiales]] Doweld 2001|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|label2=Acrogymnospermae
|2={{Clade
|1=[[Cycadopsida]] (Cycads)
|2={{Clade
|1=[[Ginkgoopsida]] (Maidenhair trees)
|2=[[Pinopsida]] (Conifers)
}}
}}
|1={{Clade
|1=†[[Phasmatocycadopsida]] Doweld 2001|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=†[[Pentoxylopsida]] Pant ex Doweld 2001|bar1=darkgreen
|2=†[[Dictyopteridiopsida]] Doweld 2001|bar2=darkgreen
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=†[[Bennettitales|Cycadeoideopsida]] Scott 1923|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{Clade
|1=†[[Caytoniales|Caytoniopsida]] Thomas ex Frenguelli 1946|barend1=darkgreen
|2=[[Flowering plant|Magnoliopsida]] (Flowering plants)
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

Unassigned spermatophytes:{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
* †[[Avatiaceae]] Anderson & Anderson 2003
* †[[Axelrodiopsida]] Anderson & Anderson
* †[[Alexiales]] Anderson & Anderson 2003
* †[[Hamshawviales]] Anderson & Anderson 2003
* †[[Hexapterospermales]] Doweld 2001
* †[[Hlatimbiales]] Anderson & Anderson 2003
* †[[Matatiellales]] Anderson & Anderson 2003
* †[[Petriellales]] Taylor et al. 1994
* †[[Arberiopsida]] Doweld 2001
* †[[Czekanowskiales]] Taylor et al. 2008
* †[[Iraniales]] E. Taylor et al. 2008
* †[[Vojnovskyales]] E. Taylor et al. 2008
* †[[Hermanophytales]] E. Taylor et al. 2008
* †[[Dirhopalostachyaceae]] E. Taylor et al. 2008

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kron|first1=Kathleen A|last2=Chase|first2=Mark W|title=Molecular systematics and seed plant phylogeny: a summary of a parsimony analysis of rbcL sequence data|pages=243–252|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aOYFqX1T0k0C&pg=PA243|isbn=9780521022897|date=2005-11-17}}, in {{harvtxt|Gibbs et al|1995}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Gibbs|editor1-first=Adrian J.|editor2-link=Charles Calisher|editor2-last=Calisher|editor2-first=Charles H.|editor3-last=García-Arenal|editor3-first=Fernando|title=Molecular basis of virus evolution|date=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521022897|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aOYFqX1T0k0C|ref={{harvid|Gibbs et al|1995}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Soltis|first1=D. E.|author-link1=D.E. Soltis|last2=Soltis|first2=P. S.|author-link2=P.S. Soltis|last3=Zanis|first3=M. J.|title=Phylogeny of seed plants based on evidence from eight genes|journal=[[American Journal of Botany]]|date=1 October 2002|volume=89|issue=10|pages=1670–1681|doi=10.3732/ajb.89.10.1670|pmid=21665594|s2cid=2444652|doi-access=free}}
{{refend}}

{{Plant classification}}
{{botany}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q25814}}

{{Authority control}}

{{二次利用|date=21 November 2022}}
[[Category:Superphyla]]
[[Category:Devonian first appearances]]
[[Category:Plants]]

Spermatophyte - Revision history