View source for Beef/ja

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[[File:Standing-rib-roast.jpg|thumb|生の[[rib roast/ja|リブロース]]]]
[[File:Harris Ranch Jack's Cut.jpg|thumb|プライムリブロースの一人前]]
[[File:Wagyu.jpg|thumb|[[Wagyu/ja|和牛]]は主に牛肉のために飼育される品種の一例である]]
'''Beef'''（ビーフ）は、[[cattle/ja|ウシ]]（''Bos taurus''）の[[meat/ja|肉]]に対する[[culinary name/ja|料理名]]である。牛肉は様々な方法で調理され、[[Cut of beef/ja|部位]]はしばしば[[steak/ja|ステーキ]]に用いられ、異なる[[doneness/ja|焼き加減]]で調理される。切り落とし肉は、多くの[[hamburger/ja|ハンバーガー]]に見られるように[[Ground beef/ja|挽肉]]にされることが多い。牛肉には[[protein/ja|タンパク質]]、[[iron/ja|鉄分]]、[[vitamin B12/ja|ビタミンB12]]が含まれている。他の種類の[[red meat/ja|赤身肉]]と同様に、過剰な摂取は[[colorectal cancer/ja|大腸がん]]や[[coronary heart disease/ja|冠動脈性心疾患]]のリスク上昇と関連しており、特に[[processed meat/ja|加工肉]]の場合に顕著である。牛肉は[[:en:Environmental impact of meat production|環境への影響]]が大きく、[[:en:deforestation|森林破壊]]の主因であり、あらゆる農業製品の中で最も高い[[:en:greenhouse gas emissions|温室効果ガス排出量]]を伴う。

先史時代において人類は[[:en:aurochs|オーロックス]]を狩猟し、後に[[:en:domesticated|家畜化]]した。それ以来、[[beef cattle/ja|肉用牛]]の多くの品種が、肉の品質や量を目的として[[Selective breeding/ja|選択交配]]された。今日、牛肉は[[pork/ja|豚肉]]、[[poultry/ja|鶏肉]]に次いで世界で3番目に多く消費されている肉である。2018年時点で、アメリカ合衆国、ブラジル、中国が最大の牛肉生産国であった。

一部の宗教や文化では[[:en:Religious restrictions on the consumption of beef|牛肉の消費を禁じて]]おり、特に[[:en:Indian religions|インド系宗教]]である[[:en:Hinduism|ヒンドゥー教]]に顕著である。[[:en:Buddhism|仏教徒]]も[[:en:Animal slaughter|動物の殺生]]に反対するが、不正な食事に関する教義は持たない。

== 語源 ==
''beef''という語はラテン語の''bōs''に由来し、''cow''は中英語の''cou''に由来する（両語は同じ[[:en:Indo-European vocabulary#Animals|インド・ヨーロッパ語族]]の語根''{{PIE|*gʷou-}}''を持つ）。

これは、動物名（主に[[:en:Germanic languages|ゲルマン系]]語源）とその肉の名称（[[:en:Romance languages|ロマンス系]]語源）との間に見られる、英語における典型的な二分法の一例である。同様の例には、''pig/pork''（豚/豚肉）、''deer/venison''（鹿/鹿肉）、''sheep/mutton''（羊/羊肉）、''chicken/poultry''（鶏/鶏肉）、およびあまり一般的ではない''goat/chevon''（山羊/山羊肉）がある。''beef''は[[:en:Late Latin|後期ラテン語]]の''bovīnus''を通じて''bovine''と[[:en:cognate|同根]]である。''beef''の複数形はまれに''beeves''とされる。

== 歴史 ==
人類は先史時代から[[bovine/ja|ウシ属]]の肉を食しており、[[:en:Lascaux|ラスコー]]に見られるような初期の[[:en:cave painting|洞窟壁画]]には、[[aurochs/ja|オーロックス]]の狩猟の場面が描かれている。人々は牛を[[:en:domestication|家畜化]]し、牛肉、[[milk/ja|乳]]、[[:en:leather|革]]を容易に得られるようにした。牛は進化の歴史の中で少なくとも2度家畜化されている。最初の家畜化は約10,500年前に''Bos taurus''が進化したときに起こった。2度目はより最近の約7,000年前に[[:en:Indian subcontinent|インド亜大陸]]で''Bos indicus''が進化したときである。さらに8,500年前に''Bos africanus''という第3の種が[[:en:Africa|アフリカ]]で発生した可能性もあり、第3の家畜化があった可能性がある。

アメリカ合衆国では、牛肉産業の発展は南西部の拡大によるところが大きい。1848年の[[:en:Mexican–American War|米墨戦争]]により草地を獲得し、その後この地域および[[:en:Midwestern United States|中西部]]から[[:en:Plains Indians|プレーンズ・インディアン]]を追放することで、アメリカの家畜産業が始まり、主に[[:en:feral|野生化]]および[[:en:semi-feral|半野生化]]したロングホーン牛の飼い慣らしから始まった。シカゴとニューヨーク市は、これらの発展の恩恵を[[:en:stockyards|家畜市場]]や[[:en:meat markets|肉市場]]において最初に受けた都市である。

<span id="Production"></span>
== 生産 ==

[[File:World Production Of Meat, Main Items.svg|thumb|ウシは世界で3番目に多く消費される肉である]]
[[File:Beef_production_1961_2021.png|thumb|牛肉（およびバッファロー肉）の生産量は過去60年間で大幅に増加した]]
[[File:World Emissions Intensity Of Agricultural Commodities (2021).svg|thumb|牛肉は農産品の中で最も排出強度が高い]]

[[Beef cattle/ja|肉用牛]]は、[[:en:feedlot|肥育場]]、[[:en:free range|放牧]]、[[:en:ranch|牧場経営]]、[[:en:backgrounding|育成牛生産]]、[[:en:intensive animal farming|集約畜産]]など、様々な方法で飼育および[[:en:Cattle feeding|給餌]]される。一般に工場式農場と呼ばれる[[:en:Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations|集中畜産施設（CAFO）]]は、牛肉の需要に応えるためによく用いられる。CAFOはアメリカの市場に供給される牛の70.4%、およびアメリカ全体の肉の99%を供給している。CAFOにおける糞便の蔓延により、食品供給における''[[:en:E. coli|大腸菌]]''汚染の原因にもなり得る。これらの''大腸菌''汚染の中には、人間に有害となる可能性のある''大腸菌'' O157:H7株も含まれており、牛はこの株を消化管内に保持しているのが一般的である。高密度飼育による不衛生な環境のもう一つの結果として、[[:en:Antibiotic use in livestock|抗生物質の使用]]が増加している。[[:en:Natural Resources Defense Council|天然資源保護協議会]]による[[:en:FDA|FDA]]の販売データの分析によると、アメリカにおける医療上重要な抗生物質の使用の42%が牛に対するものであり、[[antibiotic resistant/ja|抗生物質耐性]]菌の発生が懸念されている。2023年には、生産量が2035年にピークに達すると予測されている。

=== 環境への影響 ===
{{Further/ja|:en:Environmental impact of meat production|:en:Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|:en:Cattle#Environmental impact}}
[[File:Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png|thumb|牛肉や羊肉を食べなければ、世界の農地面積はほぼ半減する可能性がある]]
{{Bar chart|title=食物の種類ごとの平均[[:en:greenhouse gas emissions|温室効果ガス排出量]]|float=right|label_type=食物の種類|data_type=温室効果ガス排出量（g CO<small>2</small>-C<small>eq</small>/gタンパク質）|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=62|label1=[[Ruminant/ja|反芻動物の肉]]|data1=62|label2=[[:en:Recirculating aquaculture system|閉鎖循環型水産養殖]]|data2=30|label3=[[:en:Trawling|底引き網漁業]]|data3=26|label4=[[:en:Aquaculture|非循環型水産養殖]]|data4=12|label5=[[Pork/ja|豚肉]]|data5=10|label6=[[Poultry/ja|鶏肉]]|data6=10|label7=[[Dairy/ja|乳製品]]|data7=9.1|label8=[[:en:Fishery|非底引き網漁業]]|data8=8.6|label9=[[Egg as food/ja|卵]]|data9=6.8|label10=[[List of root vegetables/ja|でんぷん質根菜]]|data10=1.7|label11=[[Wheat/ja|小麦]]|data11=1.2|label12=[[Maize/ja|トウモロコシ]]|data12=1.2|label13=[[Legumes/ja|豆類]]|data13=0.25}}{{Bar chart|title=食物の種類ごとの平均[[:en:land use|土地利用]]|float=right|label_type=食物の種類|data_type=土地利用（m<sup>2</sup>年/100gタンパク質）|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=185|label1=[[Lamb and mutton/ja|羊肉]]|data1=185|label2=Beef|data2=164|label3=[[Cheese/ja|チーズ]]|data3=41|label4=[[Pork/ja|豚肉]]|data4=11|label5=[[Poultry/ja|鶏肉]]|data5=7.1|label6=[[Egg as food/ja|卵]]|data6=5.7|label7=[[Aquaculture/ja|養殖魚]]|data7=3.7|label8=[[Faboideae/ja|ピーナッツ]]|data8=3.5|label9=[[Peas/ja|エンドウ豆]]|data9=3.4|label10=[[Tofu/ja|豆腐]]|data10=2.2|label11=|data11=|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}}

牛肉の消費は[[:en:natural environment|自然環境]]に多くの脅威をもたらす。農業製品の中でも、牛肉は最も多くの土地と水を必要とし、[[:en:greenhouse gas emissions|温室効果ガス（GHG）排出]]、大気汚染、水質汚染が最も多い。2021年の研究では、生産、輸送、消費といったライフサイクル全体にわたるGHG排出量を合算し、2010年には牛肉が約40億トン（人為的GHG排出の9%）に寄与したと推定している。ウシは地球上の土地の約26%を放牧地として占有しており、これはウシの飼料生産のための広大な[[:en:Field (agriculture)|農地]]を含まない。[[Wikipedia:FAO|FAO]]によれば、「牧畜による森林破壊は、中南米の熱帯雨林における一部の独自の動植物種の喪失と、大気中への炭素の放出の主な原因の一つである」とされている。牛肉は[[:en:Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|アマゾンの森林伐採]]の主因でもあり、転換された土地の約80%がウシの飼育に使われている。1970年以降アマゾンで伐採された土地の91%は牧畜に転換されている。2005年から2013年までの世界の森林破壊の41%は牛肉生産の拡大によるものである。これは代謝可能エネルギー摂取量が高い場合の正味維持エネルギーに対する正味増加エネルギーの比率が高いためである。牛肉（生体重）1単位の生産に必要な飼料の比率は7:1から43:1とされており、鶏肉の約2:1と比較すると著しく高い。ただし、このような一般化には飼料の質に関する仮定が含まれている。例えば、牛1kgの生体重を生産するには、高タンパクかつ代謝可能エネルギー含有量の高い飼料が4～5kg、または質の低い飼料で20kg以上必要となる可能性がある。アメリカ人の食事において牛肉を大豆（ウシの飼料源として一般的）に置き換えるだけで、2020年の温室効果ガス削減目標の46～74%を達成できるとする試算もある。2021年の[[Wikipedia:CSIRO|CSIRO]]の実験では、海藻''[[Wikipedia:Asparagopsis taxiformis|Asparagopsis taxiformis]]''を飼料の3%に含めた場合、メタン排出を80%削減できる可能性が示された。このような飼料はまだ実験段階だが、世界で広く使われている飼料においても効率性には大きなばらつきがある。ある研究では、現在の飼料構成、生産地域、土地の修復を組み合わせることで、追加費用をかけずに年間34〜85%（612〜1,506 MtCO2e yr−1）の温室効果ガス削減が可能になるとした。

一部の科学者は、牛肉の需要が[[:en:Holocene extinction|顕著な生物多様性の喪失]]に寄与していると主張しており、その主因は森林破壊と[[:en:habitat destruction|生息地の破壊]]である。[[:en:Amazon|アマゾン]]地域の大部分のような種多様性の高い生息地が、食肉生産のために農地に転換されている。2019年の[[Wikipedia:IPBES|IPBES]]の''[[:en:Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services|生物多様性および生態系サービスに関する世界評価報告書]]''でも、牛肉産業が[[:en:biodiversity loss|生物多様性の喪失]]に大きな役割を果たしているとされている。世界の土地の約25〜40%は[[:en:livestock farming|家畜飼育]]に使われており、その多くがウシである。

=== 認証 ===
一部の牛肉には、[[:en:Certified Angus Beef|認定アンガスビーフ]]、[[:en:Certified Hereford Beef|認定ヘレフォードビーフ]]のような品種、[[Kobe beef/ja|神戸ビーフ]]、[[Wikipedia:Carne de Ávila|Carne de Ávila]]、[[Wikipedia:Belgian Blue|Belgian Blue]]のような[[:en:Protected Designation of Origin|原産地]]、あるいは[[Organic beef/ja|有機]]、[[Grass-fed beef/ja|牧草飼育]]、[[Kashrut/ja|コーシャー]]、[[Halal/ja|ハラール]]のような飼育方法、給餌、屠殺方法などの基準に基づいて特別な[[:en:certifications|認証]]や[[:en:designations|指定]]を受ける場合がある。いくつかの国では、屠殺後に観察された肉の品質に基づき、牛肉の[[:en:Beef carcass classification|分類]]および販売の表示を規制している。

<span id="Global_statistics"></span>
=== 世界統計 ===

[[File:Production Of Cattle Meat (2021).svg|thumb|upright=1.6|2021年の国別牛肉生産量]]

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In 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China produced the most beef with 12.22 million tons, 9.9 million tons, and 6.46 million tons respectively. The top 3 beef exporting countries in 2019 were Australia (14.8% of total exports), the United States (13.4% of total exports), and Brazil (12.6% of total exports). Beef production is also important to the [[economies]] of Japan, Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Belarus and Nicaragua.
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====Top 5 cattle and beef exporting countries====
As per 2020, Brazil was the largest beef exporter in the world followed by Australia, United States, India (Includes [[Buffalo meat|Carabeef]] only) and Argentina. Brazil, Australia, the United States and India accounted for roughly 61% of the world's beef exports.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:right;
|+Beef exports, including [[buffalo meat]], in metric tons
|-
! Rank 
!Country
!2020 
!% of the World !! Country !! 2016!! % of the World
|-
| 1
|Brazil
|2,539,000
|23.50|| Brazil || 1,850,000 || 19.60
|-
| 2 
|Australia
|1,476,000
|13.66|| India || 1,850,000 || 19.60
|-
| 3 
|United States
|1,341,000
|12.41|| Australia || 1,385,000 || 14.67
|-
| 4 
|India
|1,284,000
|11.88|| United States || 1,120,000 || 11.87
|-
| 5 
|Argentina
|819,000
|7.58||New Zealand || 580,000 || 6.14
|}
</div>

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====Top 10 cattle and beef producing countries====
The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year. Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:right;
|+Beef production (1000 Metric Tons CWE)
</div>

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|-
! Rank !! Country !! 2009!! 2010 !! % Chg
!Country
!2019
!2020
!Change
!%Chg
|-
| 1 || United States || 11,889 || 11,789 || −0.8
|United States
|12,384
|12,379
| -5,000
| -0.04
|-
| 2 || Brazil || 8,935 || 9,300 || 4
|Brazil
|10,200
|10,100
| -100,000
| -1
|-
| 3 || [[EU]]-27 || 7,970 || 7,920 || −0.6
|[[European Union|EU-27]]
|7,878
|7,810
| -68,000
| -0.9
|-
| 4 || China || 5,764 || 5,550 || −4
|China
|6,670
|6,720
|50,000
|0.8
|-
| 5 ||Argentina || 3,400 || 2,800 || −18
|India
|4,270
|3,760
| -510,000
| -12
|-
| 6 || India || 2,610 || 2,760 || 6
|Argentina
|3,125
|3,230
|105,000
|3
|-
| 7 || Australia || 2,100 || 2,075 || −1
|Australia
|2,432
|2,123
| -309,000
| -12
|-
| 8 || Mexico || 1,700 || 1,735 || 2
|Mexico
|2,027
|2,079
|52,000
|3%
|-
| 9 || Russia || 1,285 || 1,260 || −2
|Pakistan
|1,820
|1,820
|NIL
|NIL
|-
| 10|| Pakistan || 1,226 || 1,250 || 2
|Russia
|1,374
|1,378
|4,000
|0.3
|}
</div>

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====National cattle herds (Per 1000 Head)====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:right;
|-
! Rank !! Country !! 2009!! 2010 !! % Chg
|-
| 1 || India || 57,960 || 58,300 || 0.6
|-
| 2 || Brazil || 49,150 || 49,400 || 0.5
|-
| 3 || China || 42,572 || 41,000 || −4
|-
| 4 || United States|| 35,819 || 35,300 || −1.4
|-
| 5 || [[EU]] || 30,400 || 30,150 || −0.8
|-
| 6 || Argentina || 12,300 || 13,200 || 7
|-
| 7 || Australia || 9,213 || 10,158 || 10
|-
| 8 || Russia || 7,010 || 6,970 || −0.6
|-
| 9 || Mexico || 6,775 || 6,797 || 0.3
|-
| 10|| Colombia|| 5,675 || 5,675 || 0.0
|}
</div>

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====Production losses caused by climate change====
[[File:Liu 2024 climate beef.png|thumb|upright=1.75|Most of the top 10 beef-producing countries are likely to see lower production with greater temperatures (left) and heat stress (right).]]
{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on livestock|Cattle|paragraphs=5,6|files=no}}
</div>

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==Preparation==
{{Cookbook}}
</div>

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=== Cuts ===
{{Main|Cut of beef}}
Most beef can be used as is by merely cutting into certain parts, such as [[pot roast (beef)|roasts]], [[short ribs]] or [[steak]] ([[filet mignon]], [[sirloin steak]], [[rump steak]], [[rib steak]], [[rib eye steak]], [[hanger steak]], etc.), while other cuts are processed ([[corned beef]] or [[beef jerky]]). Trimmings, on the other hand, which are usually mixed with meat from older, leaner (therefore tougher) cattle, are [[Ground beef|ground]], [[minced]] or used in [[sausage]]s. The blood is used in some varieties called [[blood sausage]]. Other parts that are eaten include other muscles and [[offal]], such as the [[oxtail]], [[liver (food)|liver]], [[Beef tongue|tongue]], [[tripe]] from the [[reticulum (anatomy)|reticulum]] or [[rumen]], [[gland]]s (particularly the [[pancreas]] and [[thymus]], referred to as [[sweetbread]]), the [[heart]], the [[brain]] (although forbidden where there is a danger of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]], BSE, commonly referred to as mad cow disease), the [[kidney]]s, and the tender [[testicle]]s of the bull (known in the United States as ''calf fries'', ''prairie oysters'', or ''[[Rocky Mountain oysters]]''). Some [[intestine]]s are cooked and eaten as is, but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making [[Stock (food)|beef stock]]. Meat from younger cows (calves) is called [[veal]]. Beef from [[Cattle#Terminology|steers]] and [[:wikt:heifer|heifers]] is similar.
</div>

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Beef is first divided into [[primal cut]]s, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from which [[steak]]s and other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from ''hoof and horn'' increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as "brisket" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.
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=== Aging and tenderization ===
{{Main|Beef aging}}
{{further|Meat#Conditioning|Meat preservation|Meat tenderness}}
To improve [[meat tenderness|tenderness]] of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous [[proteolytic]] enzymes to weaken structural and [[myofibrillar]] proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.
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Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.
</div>

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Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes ([[papain]], [[bromelin]] or [[ficin]]) can be applied or injected to augment the endogenous enzymes; this can be done with purified enzyme or by using a [[marinade]] including ingredients that naturally contain the enzyme (e.g. [[papaya]] for papain or [[pineapple]] for bromelin). Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.
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=== Cooking methods ===
These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs.
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==== Dry heat ====
[[File:Roast beef.jpg|thumb|Roast beef]]
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{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Method
!Description
|-
|[[Grilling]]
|Cooking the beef over or under a high radiant heat source, generally in excess of {{convert|650|F|C|-1|order=flip}}. This leads to searing of the surface of the beef, which creates a flavorsome crust. In Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, the UK, Germany and The Netherlands, grilling, particularly over charcoal, is sometimes known as ''[[barbecuing]]'', often shortened to "BBQ". When cooked over charcoal, this method can also be called charbroiling.
|-
|[[Smoked meat|Smoking]]
|A technique of cooking that involves cooking meat for long periods of time at low temperatures with smoke from a wood fire.
|-
|[[Broiling]]
|A term used in North America. It is similar to grilling, but with the heat source always ''above'' the meat. Elsewhere this is considered a way of ''grilling''.
|-
|[[Griddle]]
|Meat may be cooked on a hot metal griddle. A little oil or fat may be added to inhibit sticking; the dividing line when the method becomes shallow frying is not well-defined.
|-
|[[Roasting]]
|A way of cooking meat in a hot [[oven]], producing [[roast beef]]. Liquid is not usually added; the beef may be [[basting (cooking)|basted]] by fat on the top, or by spooning hot fat from the oven pan over the top. A [[gravy]] may be made from the cooking juices, after skimming off excess fat. Roasting is suitable for thicker pieces of meat; the other methods listed are usually for steaks and similar cuts.
|}
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===== Internal temperature =====
[[File:Rump steak.jpg|thumb|Beef rump steak on grill pan, cooked medium rare]]
{{Main|Doneness}}
Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with a [[meat thermometer]]. Beef can be cooked using the [[sous-vide]] method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such as [[broiling]] or [[roasting]] it is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.
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==== Frying ====
Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically by [[shallow frying]], although [[deep frying]] may be used, often for meat enrobed with [[breadcrumbs]] as in [[milanesa]]s or [[finger steaks]]. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as in [[stir frying]], typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hot [[wok]]. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.
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==== Moist heat ====
Moist heat cooking methods include [[braising]], [[pot roast]]ing, [[stew]]ing and [[sous-vide]]. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.
* [[Stewing]] or [[simmering]]
:simmering meat, whole or cut into bite-size pieces, in a water-based liquid with flavorings. This technique may be used as part of [[pressure cooking]].
* [[Braising]]
:cooking meats, in a covered container, with small amounts of liquids (usually seasoned or flavored). Unlike stewing, braised meat is not fully immersed in liquid, and usually is browned before the oven step.
* [[Sous-vide]]
:Sous-vide, French for "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.
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[[File:Beef Roasted with Vinegar.jpg|thumb|Beef roasted with [[vinegar]] and sliced with spiced paste, often called "cold beef"]]
Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just [[simmer]]ing, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since [[thermostat]]ic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, {{convert|52|C|F}} (sous-vide) to {{convert|90|C|F}} ([[slow cooking]]), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough [[collagen]] in connective tissue into gelatin through [[hydrolysis]], with minimal toughening.
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With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, [[pathogen]]s, such as [[bacteria]] will be killed, and [[pasteurization]] can be achieved. Because browning ([[Maillard reaction]]s) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo [[searing]] in a very hot pan, [[grilling]] or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).
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Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques.  (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)
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Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. In [[hot pot]] cooking, such as [[shabu-shabu]], very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. In [[fondue]] bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorful [[sauce]]s to complement the meat.
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==== Raw beef ====
[[File:Raw beef slices.jpg|thumb|Thin slices of raw beef for [[hot pot]] cooking]]
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[[Steak tartare]] is a [[French cuisine|French]] dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.
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The [[Belgian cuisine|Belgian]] or Dutch dish ''[[Steak tartare|filet américain]]'' is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich.  ''[[Kibbeh nayyeh]]'' is a similar [[Lebanese cuisine|Lebanese]] and [[Syrian cuisine|Syrian]] dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish called ''tire siga'' or ''[[kitfo]]'' is eaten (upon availability).
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''[[Carpaccio]]'' of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.
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''[[Yukhoe]]'' is a variety of ''[[hoe (dish)|hoe]]'', raw dishes in [[Korean cuisine]] which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used for ''yukhoe'' is tender [[rump steak]]. For the seasoning, [[soy sauce]], sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice of ''bae'' ([[Korean pear]]) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.
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==== Cured, smoked, and dried beef ====
[[File:Beef Curry in Bangladesh.jpg|right|thumb|Beef [[curry]] from Bangladesh]]
''[[Bresaola]]'' is an [[Drying (food)|air-dried]], salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated in [[Valtellina]], a valley in the [[Alps]] of northern Italy's [[Lombardy]] region. [[Bündnerfleisch]] is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland. [[Chipped beef]] is an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."
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[[Beef jerky]] is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.
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[[Biltong]] is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.
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[[Pastrami]] is often made from beef; raw beef is [[Salt-cured meat|salted]], then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, and [[Smoked meat|smoked]].
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[[Corned beef]] is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasoned [[brine]]. The corn in ''corned beef'' refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The term ''corned beef'' can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considered [[delicatessen]] fare.
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[[Spiced beef]] is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at [[Christmas]] in Ireland. It is a form of [[salt beef]], cured with spices and [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]], intended to be boiled or broiled in [[Guinness]] or a similar [[stout (beer)|stout]], and then optionally roasted for a period after. There are various other recipes for [[pickled]] beef. [[Sauerbraten]] is a German variant.
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== Consumption ==
Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after [[pork]] and [[poultry]] at 38% and 30% respectively.
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=== Nutritional content ===
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Ground Beef 15% fat, broiled
| kJ=1047
| protein=26&nbsp;g
| water=58&nbsp;g
| fat=15&nbsp;g
| satfat=5.887&nbsp;g
| monofat = 6.662&nbsp;g
| polyfat = 0.485&nbsp;g
| carbs=0&nbsp;g
| fiber=0&nbsp;g
| starch=0&nbsp;g
<!--minerals-->
| calcium_mg=18
| copper_mg =0.85
| iron_mg=2.6
| magnesium_mg=21
| manganese_mg=0.012
| phosphorus_mg=198
| potassium_mg=318
| selenium_ug=21.6
| sodium_mg=72
| zinc_mg=6.31
<!--vitamins-->
| choline_mg=82.4
| folate_ug=9
| niacin_mg=5.378
| riboflavin_mg=0.176
| thiamin_mg=0.046
| vitB6_mg=0.383
| vitB12_ug=2.64
| vitD_iu=7
| vitE_mg=0.45
| vitK_ug=1.2
| source_usda=1}}
Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], [[vitamin B12]], [[iron]] and [[zinc]], but also contains high amounts of [[saturated fat]]. [[Red meat]] is the most significant dietary source of [[carnitine]] and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source of [[creatine]]. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.
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=== Health impact ===
{{See also|Meat#Health|l1=Health concerns associated with meat|Red meat#Health effects}}
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====Cancer====
Consumption of [[red meat]], and especially [[Processed meat|processed red meat]], is known to increase the risk of [[bowel cancer]] and some other cancers.
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====Coronary heart disease====
A 2010 meta-analysis found that processed [[red meat]] (and all [[processed meat]]) was correlated with a higher risk of [[coronary heart disease]], although based on studies that separated the two, this meta-analysis found that red meat intake was not associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease. As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.
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====Dioxins====
Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized with [[sewage sludge]]. Elevated [[Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds|dioxins]] may be present in meat from these cattle.
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==== ''E. coli'' recalls ====
Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due to ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' (''E. coli'') contamination:
* January 2011, One Great Burger expands recall.
* February 2011, American Food Service, a Pico Rivera, Calif. establishment, is recalling approximately {{convert|3170|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} of fresh ground beef patties and other bulk packages of ground beef products that may be contaminated with ''E. coli'' O157:H7.
* March 2011, {{convert|14000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} beef recalled by Creekstone Farms Premium Beef due to ''E. coli'' concerns.
* April 2011, National Beef Packaging recalled more than {{convert|60000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} of ground beef due to ''E. coli'' contamination.
* May 2011, Irish Hills Meat Company of Michigan, a Tipton, Mich., establishment is recalling approximately {{convert|900|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} of ground beef products that may be contaminated with ''E. coli'' O157:H7.
* September 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled {{convert|131100|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} of ground beef due to ''E. coli'' contamination.
* December 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled {{convert|40000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} of ground beef due to ''E. coli'' contamination.
* January 2012, Hannaford Supermarkets recalled all ground beef with sell by dates 17 December 2011 or earlier.
* September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated with ''E. coli'' 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History.
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==== Mad cow disease ====
{{Main|Bovine spongiform encephalopathy}}
In 1984, the use of [[meat and bone meal]] in cattle feed resulted in the world's first outbreak of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE or, colloquially, mad cow disease) in the United Kingdom.
[[File:Garske_2010_vCJD_UK_trends.png|thumb|Deaths in the UK caused by vCJD from the start of the BSE outbreak up until 2009. MM and MV refer to the two genotypes of vCJD.]]
Since then, other countries have had outbreaks of BSE:
* In May 2003, after a cow with BSE was discovered in [[Alberta]], Canada, the American border was closed to live Canadian cattle, but was reopened in early 2005.
* In June 2005, Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in [[Texas]]. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that "privileged information." The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time when [[Oprah Winfrey]] raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show which aired 16 April 1996.
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In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban. In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle,
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==Restrictions==
=== Religious and cultural prohibitions ===
{{Main|Cattle in religion and mythology}}
[[File:Sacred cow2.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|300px|A pamphlet against the practice of cow slaughter]]
Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits cow beef known as ''Go-Maans'' in [[Hindi]]. Bovines have a sacred status in [[culture of India|India]] especially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.
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Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society. Since the [[Vedic period]], cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming like [[plough]]ing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent of [[Jainism]] and the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]]. In medieval India, [[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] issued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.
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For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.
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In [[ancient China]], the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role in [[agriculture]]. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.
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During the season of [[Lent]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] periodically give up meat and poultry (and sometimes dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. Observant [[Jews]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] may not eat any meat or poultry which has not been [[Ritual slaughter#Jewish and Islamic ritual slaughter|slaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws]].
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=== Legal prohibition ===
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==== India ====
{{Main|Cattle slaughter in India}}
Most of the [[states of India|North Indian states]] prohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons. Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from their [[Diet (nutrition)|diets]]. Article 48 of the [[Constitution of India]] mandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle. [[Article 47 of the Constitution of India]] provides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as  "India's bovine burden."
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In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food. Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export. In 2017, India sought a total "beef ban" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market.
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==== Nepal ====
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The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law.
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====キューバ====
2003年、キューバは牛乳および乳製品の深刻な不足のため、牛の屠殺を禁止した。2021年4月14日、この禁止令は緩和され、国家の割り当てを満たし、群れの健康が確保できる限り、牧場主が自由にできるようにした。

== 関連項目 ==
{{portal|Agriculture|Food}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Argentine beef/ja|アルゼンチン牛肉]]
* [[Beef Australia/ja|ビーフ・オーストラリア]]
* [[:en:Beef hormone controversy|牛肉ホルモン論争]]
* [[:en:Bovine Meat and Milk Factors|ウシ肉・牛乳因子]]
* [[Buffalo meat/ja|水牛肉]]
* [[Carnism/ja|肉食主義]]
* [[:en:Environmental impact of meat production|食肉生産が環境に与える影響]]
* [[List of beef dishes/ja|牛肉料理の一覧]]
* [[List of meat animals/ja|食肉動物の一覧]]
* [[:en:Pink slime|ピンクスライム]]
* [[Veal/ja|子牛肉]]
{{div col end}}

== 外部リンク ==
{{Sister project links|Beef}}
*{{cookbook-inline|Beef}}


{{Beef/ja}}
{{Meat/ja}}

[[Category:Beef| ]]
[[Category:Cattle products]]
{{二次利用/ja|date=19 June 2025, at 20:46}}