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{{Infobox drug class
| Name                = ビタミン
| Image               = B vitamin supplement tablets.jpg
| Alt                 = 
| Caption             = ビタミンB群の錠剤ボトル
| Pronounce         = {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|v|ɪ|t|ə|m|ɪ|n|,_|ˈ|v|aɪ|t|-}} {{respell|VIT|ə|min|,_|VYTE|-}},<br />{{IPAc-en|us|ˈ|v|aɪ|t|ə|m|ɪ|n}} {{respell|VY|tə|min}}
| Synonyms          = 
<!-- Class identifiers -->
| Use                 = 
| ATC_prefix          = 
| Mode_of_action      = 
| Mechanism_of_action = 
| Biological_target   = 
| Chemial_class      = 
<!-- Clinical data -->
| Drugs.com           = <!-- {{Drugs.com|drug-class|?}} -->
| Consumer_Reports    = 
| medicinenet         = 
| rxlist              =  
<!-- External links -->
| MeshID              = 
}}

'''ビタミン'''とは、[[Organic compound/ja|有機分子]]（または[[vitamer/ja|ビタマー]]と呼ばれる密接に関連した分子の集合）であり、適切な[[metabolism/ja|代謝]]機能のために少量であれば[[organism/ja|生物]]にとって[[Nutrient/ja#Essential nutrients|必須]]である。必須栄養素は、生存に十分な量を生体内で[[biosynthesis/ja|合成]]することができないため、[[Diet (nutrition)/ja|食事]]によって摂取しなければならない。例えば、[[vitamin C/ja|ビタミンC]]はある種では合成できるが、他の種では合成できない。 ほとんどのビタミンは単一分子ではなく、ビタマーと呼ばれる関連分子のグループである。例えば、[[vitamin E/ja|ビタミンE]]には8つのビタマーがある：4つの[[tocopherol/ja|トコフェロール]]と4つの[[tocotrienol/ja|トコトリエノール]]である。

''ビタミン''という用語には、[[essential nutrient/ja|必須栄養素]]の他の3つのグループは含まれない： [[mineral (nutrient)/ja|ミネラル]]、[[essential fatty acid/ja|必須脂肪酸]]、[[essential amino acid/ja|必須アミノ酸]]である。

主要な健康団体は13種類のビタミンをリストアップしている：

* [[Vitamin A/ja|ビタミンA]] (オール-''トランス''-[[retinol/ja|レチノール]]、オール-''トランス''-レチニル-エステル、およびオール-''トランス''-[[beta-carotene/ja|β-カロテン]]およびその他の[[provitamin/ja|プロビタミン]]）。Aカロテノイド)
* ビタミンB<sub>1</sub> ([[thiamine/ja|チアミン]])
* ビタミンB<sub>2</sub> ([[riboflavin/ja|リボフラビン]])
* ビタミンB<sub>3</sub> ([[niacin (substance)/ja|ナイアシン]])
* ビタミンB<sub>5</sub> ([[pantothenic acid/ja|パントテン酸]])
* ビタミンB<sub>6</sub> ([[pyridoxine/ja|ピリドキシン]])
* ビタミンB<sub>7</sub> ([[biotin/ja|ビオチン]])
* ビタミンB<sub>9</sub> ([[folic acid/ja|葉酸]]と[[folate/ja|葉酸類]])
* ビタミンB<sub>12</sub> ([[cobalamin/ja|コバラミン]])
* ビタミンC ([[ascorbic acid/ja|アスコルビン酸]]と[[ascorbate/ja|アスコルビン酸塩]])
* [[Vitamin D/ja|ビタミンD]] ([[calciferol/ja|カルシフェロール]])
* [[Vitamin E/ja|ビタミンE]] ([[tocopherols/ja|トコフェロール]]と[[tocotrienols/ja|トコトリエノール]])。
* [[Vitamin K/ja|ビタミンK]] ([[phylloquinone/ja|フィロキノン]]、[[menaquinone/ja|メナキノン]]、[[menadione/ja|メナジオン]]) 

14番目の[[choline/ja|コリン]]を含むソースもある。

ビタミンには多様な生化学的機能がある。ビタミンAは細胞や組織の成長と分化の調節因子として働く。ビタミンDはホルモンに似た働きをし、骨や他の臓器のミネラル代謝を調節する。[[B complex/ja|ビタミンB群]]は、酵素[[cofactor (biochemistry)/ja|補因子]]またはその[[precursor (chemistry)/ja|前駆体]]として機能する。ビタミンCとビタミンEは[[antioxidant/ja|抗酸化物質]]として機能する。水溶性ビタミンの過剰摂取はその可能性は低いが、ビタミンの欠乏と過剰摂取の両方が臨床的に重大な疾病を引き起こす可能性がある。

すべてのビタミンは1913年から1948年の間に発見された。歴史的には、食事からのビタミン摂取が不足すると、ビタミン欠乏症になった。その後、1935年から酵母抽出ビタミンB複合体と半合成ビタミンCの錠剤が市販されるようになった。続いて1950年代には、一般の人々のビタミン欠乏症を予防するために、[[multivitamin/ja|マルチビタミン]]を含む[[vitamin supplement/ja|ビタミン・サプリメント]]が大量生産・販売されるようになった。各国政府は、欠乏症を予防するために、小麦粉や牛乳などの[[staple food/ja|主食]]にいくつかのビタミンを添加することを義務づけており、これを[[food fortification/ja|食品強化]]と呼んでいる。[[Nutrition and pregnancy/ja|妊娠]]中の葉酸補給の推奨は、乳児の[[neural tube defect/ja|神経管欠損症]]のリスクを減少させた。

==ビタミンのリスト==
{| class="wikitable sortable col3center"
|-
! colspan="2" scope="col" | ビタミン
! class="unsortable" scope="col" | [[Vitamer/ja|ビタマー]]
! scope="col" | [[Solubility/ja|可溶性]]
! class="unsortable" scope="col" | U.S. [[Reference Daily Intake|推奨摂取量]]<br /> 一日あたり<br /> 19–70歳)
! class="unsortable" scope="col" | 欠乏症
! class="unsortable" scope="col" | 過剰摂取症候群/症状
! class="unsortable" scope="col" | 食料源
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" | [[vitamin A/ja|A]]
| {{Unbulleted list
  | オール-''トランス''-[[retinol/ja|レチノール]] ([[retinal/ja|レチナール]]、[[retinoic acid/ja|レチノイン酸]]、[[retinoids/ja|レチノイド]]）
  | プロビタミン A [[carotenoid/ja|カロテノイド]] ([[alpha-carotene/ja|αカロテン]], [[beta-carotene/ja|βカロテン]], [[gamma-carotene/ja|γカロテン]])
  | [[xanthophyll/ja|キサントフィル]]&nbsp;β-[[cryptoxanthin/ja|クリプトキサンチン]]
  }}
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
| 900&nbsp;µg/700&nbsp;µg
| [[night blindness/ja|夜盲症]], [[hyperkeratosis/ja|過角化症]], [[keratomalacia/ja|角化軟化症]]
| [[hypervitaminosis A/ja|ビタミンA過剰症]]
| 動物由来のビタミンA / オール-''トランス''-レチノール：魚全般、レバー、乳製品；

植物由来のプロビタミンA／オール-''トランス''&nbsp;β-カロテン：オレンジ、熟した黄色の果物、葉野菜、ニンジン、カボチャ、カボチャ、ホウレンソウ
|-
! rowspan="8" | [[B vitamins/ja|B]]
! scope="row" | [[vitamin B1/ja|B<sub>1</sub>]]
| {{Unbulleted list
  | [[thiamine/ja|チアミン]]
  | [[thiamine monophosphate/ja|チアミン一リン酸]]
  | [[thiamine pyrophosphate/ja|チアミンピロリン酸塩]]
  }}
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 1.2&nbsp;mg/1.1&nbsp;mg
| [[beriberi/ja|脚気]]、[[Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome/ja|ウェルニッケ・コルサコフ症候群]]
| 眠気と筋肉の弛緩
| 豚肉、全粒穀物、玄米、野菜、ジャガイモ、レバー、卵
|-
! scope="row" | [[vitamin B2/ja|B<sub>2</sub>]]
| {{Unbulleted list
  | [[riboflavin/ja|リボフラビン]]
  | [[flavin mononucleotide/ja|フラビンモノヌクレオチド]] (FMN)
  | [[flavin adenine dinucleotide/ja|フラビンアデニンジヌクレオチド]] (FAD)
  }}
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 1.3&nbsp;mg/1.1&nbsp;mg
| [[ariboflavinosis/ja|リボフラビン症]]、[[glossitis/ja|舌炎]]、[[angular stomatitis/ja|口角炎]]
|
|乳製品、バナナ、インゲン豆、アスパラガス
|-
! scope="row" | [[vitamin B3/ja|B<sub>3</sub>]]
| {{Unbulleted list
  | [[nicotinic acid/ja|ニコチン酸]]
  | [[niacinamide/ja|ナイアシンアミド]]
  | [[nicotinamide riboside/ja|ニコチンアミドリボシド]]
  }}
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 16&nbsp;mg/14&nbsp;mg
| [[pellagra/ja|ペラグラ]]
| [[liver/ja|肝臓]]障害（2g/日を超える用量）と[[niacin (nutrient)/ja|その他の問題]]
|肉、魚、卵、多くの野菜、キノコ、木の実
|-
! scope="row" | [[vitamin B5/ja|B<sub>5</sub>]]
| {{Unbulleted list
  | [[pantothenic acid/ja|パントテン酸]]
  | [[panthenol/ja|パンテノール]]
  | [[pantethine/ja|パンテチン]]
  }}
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 5&nbsp;mg/5&nbsp;mg

<div class="mw-translate-fuzzy">
| [[paresthesia/ja|感覚異常]]
| 下痢、吐き気や胸焼けを起こすこともある。
|肉、ブロッコリー、アボカド
|-
! [[vitamin B6/ja|B<sub>6</sub>]]
| [[pyridoxine/ja|ピリドキシン]]、[[pyridoxamine/ja|ピリドキサミン]]、[[pyridoxal/ja|ピリドキサール]]
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 1.3–1.7&nbsp;mg/1.2–1.5&nbsp;mg
| [[anemia/ja|貧血]]、[[peripheral neuropathy/ja|末梢神経障害]]
| [[proprioception/ja|プロプリオセプション]]障害、神経損傷（100&nbsp;mg/日を超える用量)
|肉、野菜、ナッツ、バナナ
|-
! [[biotin/ja|B<sub>7</sub>]]
| [[biotin/ja|ビオチン]]
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| AI: 30&nbsp;µg/30&nbsp;µg
| [[dermatitis/ja|皮膚炎]]、[[enteritis/ja|腸炎]]
|
|生卵黄、レバー、ピーナッツ、葉物野菜
|-
! [[folate/ja|B<sub>9</sub>]]
| [[folate/ja|葉酸塩]], [[folic acid/ja|葉酸]]
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 400&nbsp;µg/400&nbsp;µg
| style="text-align:left;"| [[megaloblastic anemia/ja|巨赤芽球性貧血]]と妊娠中の欠乏は、[[neural tube/ja|神経管]]欠損症などの[[birth defects/ja|先天異常]]と関連している
| ビタミンB<sub>12</sub>欠乏症の症状を覆い隠すかもしれない；[[folate/ja#Toxicity|その他の作用]]
|葉野菜、パスタ、パン、シリアル、レバー
|-
! [[vitamin B12/ja|B<sub>12</sub>]]
| [[cyanocobalamin/ja|シアノコバラミン]], [[hydroxocobalamin/ja|ヒドロキソコバラミン]], [[methylcobalamin/ja|メチルコバラミン]], [[adenosylcobalamin/ja|アデノシルコバラミン]]
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 2.4&nbsp;µg/2.4&nbsp;µg
| [[vitamin B12 deficiency anemia/ja|ビタミンB<sub>12</sub>欠乏性貧血]]
| 証明されていない
|肉、鶏肉、魚、卵、牛乳
|-
! colspan="2" |[[vitamin C/ja|C]]
| [[ascorbic acid/ja|アスコルビン酸]]
| {{CellCategory |4 |water |align=mc}}
| 90&nbsp;mg/75&nbsp;mg
| [[scurvy/ja|壊血病]]
| 胃痛、下痢、鼓腸
|多くの果物や野菜、レバー
|-
! rowspan="5" |[[vitamin D/ja|D]]
! style="whitespace:nowrap;" |[[vitamin D1/ja|D<sub>1</sub>]]
| [[ergocalciferol/ja|エルゴカルシフェロール]]と[[lumisterol/ja|ルミステロール]]の分子化合物の混合物、1：1
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
| rowspan="5" | 15&nbsp;µg/15&nbsp;µg
| rowspan="5" | [[rickets/ja|くる病]] と [[osteomalacia/ja|骨軟化症]]
| rowspan="5" | [[hypervitaminosis D/ja|ビタミンD過剰症]]
|
|-
![[vitamin D2/ja|D<sub>2</sub>]]
|[[ergocalciferol]]
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
|sunlight-exposed mushrooms and [[yeast]]
|-
![[vitamin D3|D<sub>3</sub>]]
|[[cholecalciferol/ja|コレカルシフェロール]]
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
|脂ののった魚（サバ、サケ、イワシ）、魚の肝油、ビタミンDを与えた鶏の卵
|-
![[vitamin D4/ja|D<sub>4</sub>]]
|[[22-dihydroergocalciferol/ja|22-ジヒドロエルゴカルシフェロール]]
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
|
|-
![[vitamin D5/ja|D<sub>5</sub>]]
|[[sitocalciferol/ja|シトカルシフェロール]]
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[vitamin E/ja|E]]
| [[tocopherol/ja|トコフェロール]], [[tocotrienol/ja|トコトリエノール]]
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
| 15&nbsp;mg/15&nbsp;mg
| align="left" | 新生児の[[hemolytic anemia/ja|溶血性貧血]]は軽度である。
| うっ血性心不全の発生率が増加する可能性がある。
|多くの果物や野菜、ナッツや種子、種子油
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[vitamin K/ja|K]]
! [[vitamin K1/ja|K<sub>1</sub>]]
| [[phylloquinone/ja|フィロキノン]]
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
| rowspan="2" | AI: 110&nbsp;µg/120&nbsp;µg
| rowspan="2" | [[bleeding diathesis/ja|出血性疾患]]
| rowspan="2" | [[warfarin/ja|ワルファリン]]の抗凝固作用が低下した。
| ほうれん草などの葉物野菜
|-
![[vitamin K2/ja|K<sub>2</sub>]]
|[[menaquinone/ja|メナキノン]]
| {{CellCategory |1 |fat |align=mc}}
|鶏肉と卵、''[[nattō/ja|納豆]]''、牛肉、豚肉、または魚
|}
</div>

==歴史==
{{Anchor|History}}
健康維持のために特定の食品を食べることの価値は、ビタミンが特定されるずっと以前から認識されていた。[[:en:ancient Egyptians|古代エジプト人]]は、[[liver (food)/ja|肝臓]]を食べさせると[[night blindness/ja|夜盲症]]に効果があることを知っていた。この病気は、現在では[[vitamin A/ja|ビタミンA]]の欠乏によって引き起こされることが知られている。[[:en:Age of Discovery|大航海時代]]に大航海が進んだ結果、新鮮な果物や野菜が手に入らない期間が長くなり、ビタミン欠乏による病気が船の乗組員の間で一般的になった。

{| class="wikitable sortable" style = "float:right; font-size:90%; margin-left:15px"
|+ ビタミンの発見日とその供給源
|- class="hintergrundfarbe6"
! 発見年 !! ビタミン !! 食料源
|-
| 1913 || ビタミン A (レチノール) || [[Cod liver oil/ja|鱈肝油]]
|-
| 1910 || ビタミン B<sub>1</sub> (チアミン) || [[Rice bran/ja|米ぬか]]
|-
| 1920 || ビタミン C (アスコルビン酸) || [[Citrus/ja|柑橘類]]、ほとんどの生鮮食品
|-
| 1920 || ビタミン D (カルシフェロール) || 鱈肝油
|-
| 1920 || ビタミン B<sub>2</sub> (リボフラビン) || [[Meat/ja|肉]]、[[dairy products/ja|乳製品]]、[[Egg (food)|卵]]
|-
| 1922 || ビタミン E (トコフェノール)|| [[Wheat germ oil/ja|小麦胚芽油]], <br /> 未精製植物油
|-
| 1929 || ビタミン K<sub>1</sub> ([[Phylloquinone/ja|フィロキノン]]) || [[Leaf vegetable/ja|葉野菜]]
|-
| 1931 || ビタミン B<sub>5</sub> (パントテン酸) || 肉, [[whole grain/ja|全粒穀物]], <br />多くの食品に含まれる
|-
| 1934 || ビタミン B<sub>6</sub> (ピリドキシン) || 肉、乳製品
|-
| 1936 || ビタミン B<sub>7</sub> ([[Biotin/ja|ビオチン]]) || 肉、乳製品、卵
|-
| 1936 || ビタミン B<sub>3</sub> (ナイアシン) || 肉、[[grain/ja|穀物]]類
|-
| 1941 || ビタミン B<sub>9</sub> (葉酸) || 葉野菜
|-
| 1948 || [[Vitamin B12/ja|Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>]] (コバラミン) || 肉、内臓（[[Liver (food)/ja|レバー]]）、卵
|-
|}

1747年、[[:ja:スコットランド|スコットランド]]の[[surgeon/ja|外科医]][[:en:James Lind (physician)|James Lind]]が、[[citrus/ja|柑橘類]]食品が壊血病の予防に役立つことを発見した。壊血病は[[collagen/ja|コラーゲン]]が適切に形成されず、傷の治癒不良、[[gingiva/ja|歯肉]]の出血、激しい痛み、そして死を引き起こす、特に致命的な病気である。1753年にリンドは''壊血病に関する論文''を発表し、[[scurvy/ja|壊血病]]を避けるために[[lemon/ja|レモン]]や[[Lime (fruit)/ja|ライム]]を使用することを推奨し、イギリス[[:en:Royal Navy|王立海軍]]で採用された。このため、イギリスの船員は'''[[:en:limey|ライミー]]''というあだ名で呼ばれるようになった。しかし、19世紀にはレモンの代わりに西インド諸島で栽培されたライムが使われるようになり、ビタミンCが非常に少ないことが判明した。その結果、北極探検隊は壊血病やその他の[[deficiency disease/ja|欠乏症]]に悩まされ続けた。20世紀初頭、[[:en:Robert Falcon Scott|ロバート・ファルコン・スコット]]が2度の[[:ja:南極大陸|南極大陸]]探検を行ったとき、医学的には壊血病は''汚染された''[[:ja:缶詰|缶詰食品]]によって引き起こされるという説が主流であった。

1881年、[[:ja:ロシア帝国|ロシア]]の医学者[[:en:Nikolai Lunin (scientist)|ニコライ・ルーニン]]が[[:en:University of Tartu|タルトゥ大学]]で壊血病の影響を研究した。彼は当時知られていた牛乳のすべての個別成分、すなわち[[protein/ja|タンパク質]]、[[fat/ja|脂肪]]、[[carbonhydrate/ja|炭水化物]]、[[salt (chemistry)/ja|塩]]の人工混合物をマウスに与えた。個々の成分のみを摂取したマウスは死亡したが、牛乳そのものを摂取したマウスは正常に発育した。彼は、「牛乳のような自然食品には、これらの既知の主成分のほかに、生命維持に不可欠な未知の物質が少量含まれているに違いない」と結論づけた。しかし、彼の結論は指導教官であった[[:en:Gustav von Bunge|グスタフ・フォン・ブンゲ]]によって否定された。[[:en:Cornelis Adrianus Pekelharing|コルネリス・アドリアヌス・ペケルハリング]]による同様の結果は、1905年にオランダの医学雑誌''[[:en:Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde|Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde]]''に掲載されたが、広く報道されることはなかった。

精米された[[white rice/ja|白米]]が中産階級の一般的な主食であった[[:ja:東アジア|東アジア]]では、ビタミンB<sub>1</sub>の不足から生じる[[beriberi/ja|脚気]]が[[Endemic (epidemiology)/ja|endemic]]であった。1884年、[[:ja:大日本帝国海軍|大日本帝国海軍]]のイギリス人医学者であった[[:ja:高木兼寛|高木兼寛]]は、米しか食べないことが多い下級乗組員の間で脚気が流行していることを観察したが、洋食を摂取する将校の間ではそうではなかった。一方の乗組員には白米だけを食べさせ、もう一方の乗組員には肉、魚、大麦、米、豆を食べさせた。白米だけを食べたグループでは161人の乗組員が脚気にかかり、25人が死亡した。この結果、高木と日本海軍は、脚気の原因は食事にあると確信したが、十分な量のタンパク質が脚気を防ぐと誤解していた。1897年、[[:en:Christiaan Eijkman|Christiaan Eijkman]]は鶏に精米した[[rice/ja|米]]の代わりに玄米を与えると、脚気に相当する一種の[[polyneuritis/ja|多発性神経炎]]を防ぐことができることを発見した。その翌年、[[:en:Frederick Hopkins|フレデリック・ホプキンス]]は、タンパク質、炭水化物、脂肪''など''に加えて、人体の機能に必要な「アクセサリー因子」&nbsp;を含む食品があることを提唱した。

[[File:J. C. Drummond, The Nomenclature of the So-called Accessory Food Factors (Vitamins), 1920.png|thumb|1920年の[[:en:Jack Drummond|ジャック・ドラモンド]]の論文1段落目は、今日ビタミンの構造と命名法を提供している]]

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==="Vitamine" to vitamin===
In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist [[Umetaro Suzuki]], who succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it [[aberic acid]] (later ''Orizanin''). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal. When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish-born biochemist [[Casimir Funk]], working in London, isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine". It was later to be known as vitamin B<sub>3</sub> (niacin), though he described it as "anti-beri-beri-factor" (which would today be called thiamine or vitamin B<sub>1</sub>). Funk proposed the hypothesis that other diseases, such as rickets, pellagra, coeliac disease, and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins. [[Maximilian Nierenstein|Max Nierenstein]] a friend and Reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University reportedly suggested the "vitamine" name (from "vital amine"). The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are [[amine]]s, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, [[Jack Cecil Drummond]] proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, hence "vitamin," after researchers began to suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component.<
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===Nobel Prizes for vitamin research===
The Nobel Prize for Chemistry for 1928 was awarded to [[Adolf Windaus]] "for his studies on the constitution of the sterols and their connection with vitamins", the first person to receive an award mentioning vitamins, even though it was not specifically about vitamin D.
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The [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for 1929 was awarded to Christiaan Eijkman and [[Frederick Gowland Hopkins]] for their contributions to the discovery of vitamins. Thirty-five years earlier, Eijkman had observed that chickens fed polished white rice developed neurological symptoms similar to those observed in military sailors and soldiers fed a rice-based diet, and that the symptoms were reversed when the chickens were switched to whole-grain rice. He called this "the anti-beriberi factor", which was later identified as vitamin B<sub>1</sub>, thiamine.
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In 1930, [[Paul Karrer]] elucidated the correct structure for [[beta-carotene]], the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified other [[carotenoids]]. Karrer and [[Norman Haworth]] confirmed Albert Szent-Györgyi's discovery of [[ascorbic acid]] and made significant contributions to the chemistry of [[flavins]], which led to the identification of [[lactoflavin]]. For their investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B<sub>2</sub>, they both received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1937.
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In 1931, [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] and a fellow researcher [[Joseph Svirbely]] suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actually [[vitamin C]], and gave a sample to [[Charles Glen King]], who proved its activity counter to scurvy in his long-established [[guinea pig]] scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943, [[Edward Adelbert Doisy]] and [[Henrik Dam]] were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of [[vitamin K]] and its chemical structure.
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In 1938, [[Richard Kuhn]] was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on carotenoids and vitamins, specifically B<sub>2</sub> and B<sub>6</sub>.
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Five people have been awarded [[Nobel Prize]]s for direct and indirect studies of vitamin B<sub>12</sub>: [[George Whipple]], [[George Minot]] and [[William P. Murphy]] (1934), [[Alexander R. Todd]] (1957), and [[Dorothy Hodgkin]] (1964).
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In 1967, [[George Wald]], [[Ragnar Granit]] and [[Haldan Keffer Hartline]] were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine  "...for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye." Wald's contribution was discovering the role vitamin A had in the process.
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===History of promotional marketing===
Once discovered, vitamins were actively promoted in articles and advertisements in ''[[McCall's]]'', ''[[Good Housekeeping]]'', and other media outlets. Marketers enthusiastically promoted [[cod-liver oil]], a source of vitamin D, as "bottled sunshine", and bananas as a "natural vitality food". They promoted foods such as [[yeast]] cakes, a source of B vitamins, on the basis of scientifically determined nutritional value, rather than taste or appearance. In 1942, when flour [[food fortification|enrichment]] with nicotinic acid began, a headline in the popular press said "Tobacco in Your Bread." In response, the Council on Foods and Nutrition of the [[American Medical Association]] approved of the [[Food and Nutrition Board]]'s new names ''niacin'' and ''niacin amide'' for use primarily by non-scientists. It was thought appropriate to choose a name to dissociate nicotinic acid from [[nicotine]], to avoid the perception that vitamins or niacin-rich food contains nicotine, or that cigarettes contain vitamins. The resulting name ''niacin'' was derived from ''{{strong|ni}}cotinic {{strong|ac}}id'' + ''vitam{{strong|in}}''. Researchers also focused on the need to ensure adequate nutrition, especially to compensate for what was lost in the manufacture of [[processed foods]].
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Robert W. Yoder is credited with first using the term ''vitamania'', in 1942, to describe the appeal of relying on nutritional supplements rather than on obtaining vitamins from a varied diet of foods. The continuing preoccupation with a healthy lifestyle led to an obsessive consumption of vitamins and multi-vitamins, the beneficial effects of which are questionable. As one example, in the 1950s, the [[Wonder Bread]] company sponsored the [[Howdy Doody]] television show, with host [[Buffalo Bob Smith]] telling the audience, "Wonder Bread builds strong bodies 8 ways", referring to the number of [[Food additive|added nutrients]].
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==Etymology==
The term "vitamin" was derived from "vitamine", a [[compound (linguistics)|compound word]] coined in 1912 by the [[biochemist]] Casimir Funk while working at the [[Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine]]. Funk created the name from ''vital'' and ''amine'', because it appeared that these organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary-deficiency diseases were required for life, hence "vital", and were chemical amines, hence "amine". This was true of [[thiamine]], but after it was found that vitamin C and other such micronutrients were not amines, the word was shortened to "vitamin" in English.
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==Classification==
Vitamins are classified as either [[Hydrophilicity|water-soluble]] or [[lipophilicity|fat-soluble]]. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the [[gastrointestinal tract]] with the help of [[lipid]]s (fats). Vitamins A and D can accumulate in the body, which can result in dangerous [[hypervitaminosis]]. Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency due to malabsorption is of particular significance in [[cystic fibrosis]].
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==Anti-vitamins==
{{Main|Antinutrient}}
Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, [[avidin]] is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption of [[biotin]]; it is deactivated by cooking. Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular structure similar to thiamine, [[vitamin B1|vitamin B<sub>1</sub>]], and inhibits the [[enzyme]]s that use thiamine.
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==Biochemical functions==
Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions.
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===On fetal growth and childhood development===
{{main|Nutrition and pregnancy}}
Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a [[fetus]] [[prenatal development|develop]]s from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, [[skin]], [[bone]], and [[muscle]]. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.
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===On adult health maintenance===
Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for [[cellular respiration]].
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== Intake ==
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===Sources===
For the most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the [[gut flora]] produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength of ultraviolet light present in [[sunlight]]. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume: for example, vitamin A is synthesized from [[beta carotene]]; and [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]] is synthesized from the [[amino acid]] [[tryptophan]]. Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others. [[Vitamin B12|Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>]] is the only vitamin or nutrient not available from plant sources. The Food Fortification Initiative lists countries which have mandatory fortification programs for vitamins folic acid, niacin, vitamin A and vitamins B<sub>1</sub>, B<sub>2</sub> and B<sub>12</sub>.
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===Deficient intake===
{{See also|Vitamin deficiency}}
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The [[human body|body's]] stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B<sub>12</sub> are stored in significant amounts, mainly in the [[liver]], and an adult's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B<sub>12</sub> in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B<sub>3</sub> (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks. For vitamin C, the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from a month to more than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores.
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Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency, but may be consuming less than the recommended amounts; a national food and supplement survey conducted in the US over 2003-2006 reported that over 90% of individuals who did not consume vitamin supplements were found to have inadequate levels of some of the essential vitamins, notably vitamins D and E.
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Well-researched human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin ([[pellagra]]), vitamin C (scurvy), folate (neural tube defects) and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed world these deficiencies are rare due to an adequate supply of food and the addition of vitamins to common foods. In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders.
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===Excess intake===
{{See also|Hypervitaminosis}}
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Some vitamins have documented acute or chronic toxicity at larger intakes, which is referred to as hypertoxicity. The European Union and the governments of several countries have established [[Tolerable upper intake levels]] (ULs) for those vitamins which have documented toxicity (see table). The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but excessive intake ([[vitamin poisoning]]) from dietary supplements does occur. In 2016, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multi-vitamin/mineral formulations was reported by 63,931 individuals to the [[American Association of Poison Control Centers]] with 72% of these exposures in children under the age of five. In the US, analysis of a national diet and supplement survey reported that about 7% of adult supplement users exceeded the UL for folate and 5% of those older than age 50 years exceeded the UL for vitamin A.
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===Effects of cooking===
The [[USDA]] has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from food types and cooking methods. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.
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{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" |-
! rowspan="2" |Vitamin
! colspan="4" |'''Is substance susceptible to losses under given condition?'''
|-
!Soluble in Water
!Air Exposure
!Light Exposure
!Heat Exposure
|-
|Vitamin A
| no
| partially
| partially
| relatively stable
|-
|Vitamin C
| very unstable
| yes
| no
| no
|-
| Vitamin D
| no
| no
| no
| no
|-
| Vitamin E
| no
| yes
| yes
| no
|-
|Vitamin K
| no
| no
| yes
| no
|-
|Thiamine (B<sub>1</sub>)
| highly
| no
| ?
| > 100&nbsp;°C
|-
|Riboflavin (B<sub>2</sub>)
| slightly
| no
| in solution
| no
|-
|Niacin (B<sub>3</sub>)
| yes
| no
| no
| no
|-
|Pantothenic Acid (B<sub>5</sub>)
| quite stable
| no
| no
| yes
|-
|Vitamin B<sub>6</sub>
| yes
| ?
| yes
| < 160&nbsp;°C
|-
|Biotin (B<sub>7</sub>)
| somewhat
| ?
| ?
| no
|-
|Folic Acid (B<sub>9</sub>)
| yes
| ?
| when dry
| at high temp
|-
|Cobalamin (B<sub>12</sub>)
| yes
| ?
| yes
| no
|}
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==Recommended levels==
In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do not necessarily agree on amounts needed to avoid deficiency or maximum amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity. For example, for vitamin C, recommended intakes range from 40&nbsp;mg/day in India to 155&nbsp;mg/day for the European Union. The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins, PRIs for the European Union (same concept as RDAs), followed by what three government organizations deem to be the safe upper intake. RDAs are set higher than EARs to cover people with higher than average needs. Adequate Intakes (AIs) are set when there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs. Governments are slow to revise information of this nature. For the U.S. values, with the exception of calcium and vitamin D, all of the data date to 1997–2004.
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All values are consumption per day:
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{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nutrient !! rowspan="2" |U.S. EAR!! rowspan="2" |Highest U.S.<br />RDA or AI!! rowspan="2" |Highest EU<br />PRI or AI!! colspan="3" |Upper limit (UL) !! rowspan="2" |Unit
|-
! U.S.!! EU !! Japan
|-
|[[Vitamin A]]|| 625 || 900 || 1300 || 3000 || 3000 || 2700 || µg
|-
|[[Vitamin C]]|| 75 || 90 || 155 || 2000 || ND || ND || mg
|-
|[[Vitamin D]]|| 10 || 15 || 15 || 100 || 100 || 100 || µg
|-
|[[Vitamin K]]|| NE || 120 || 70 || ND || ND || ND || µg
|-
|[[Tocopherol|α-tocopherol]] (Vitamin E) || 12 || 15 || 13 || 1000 || 300 || 650-900 || mg
|-
|[[Thiamin]] (Vitamin B<sub>1</sub>) || 1.0 || 1.2 || 0.1&nbsp;mg/MJ || ND || ND || ND || mg
|-
|[[Riboflavin]] (Vitamin B<sub>2</sub>) || 1.1 || 1.3 || 2.0 || ND || ND || ND || mg
|-
|[[Niacin (nutrient)|Niacin]] (Vitamin B<sub>3</sub>) || 12 || 16 || 1.6&nbsp;mg/MJ || 35 || 10 || 60-85 || mg
|-
|[[Pantothenic acid]] (Vitamin B<sub>5</sub>) || NE || 5 || 7 || ND || ND || ND || mg
|-
|[[Vitamin B6|Vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]]|| 1.1 || 1.3 || 1.8 || 100 || 25 || 40-60 || mg
|-
|[[Biotin]] (Vitamin B<sub>7</sub>) || NE || 30 || 45 || ND || ND || ND || µg
|-
|[[Folate]] (Vitamin B<sub>9</sub>) || 320 || 400 || 600 || 1000 || 1000 || 900-1000|| µg
|-
|[[Cyanocobalamin]] (Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>) || 2.0 || 2.4 || 5.0 || ND || ND || ND || µg
|}
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'''EAR''' US Estimated Average Requirements.
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'''RDA''' US Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating.
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'''AI'''  US and EFSA Adequate Intake; AIs established when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs.
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'''PRI''' Population Reference Intake is European Union equivalent of RDA; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. For Thiamin and Niacin the PRIs are expressed as amounts per MJ of calories consumed. MJ = megajoule = 239 food calories.
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'''UL or Upper Limit'''  Tolerable upper intake levels.
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'''ND'''  ULs have not been determined.
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'''NE'''  EARs have not been established.
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==Supplementation==
[[File:500 mg calcium supplements with vitamin D.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Calcium combined with vitamin D (as calciferol) supplement tablets with fillers.]]
In those who are otherwise healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to [[cancer]] or [[cardiovascular disease|heart disease]]. Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included [[tobacco smoking|smokers]] for whom it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful. A 2018 meta-analysis found no evidence that intake of vitamin D or calcium for community-dwelling elderly people reduced bone fractures.
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Europe has regulations that define limits of vitamin (and mineral) dosages for their safe use as dietary supplements. Most vitamins that are sold as dietary supplements are not supposed to exceed a maximum daily dosage referred to as the [[tolerable upper intake level]] (UL or Upper Limit). Vitamin products above these regulatory limits are not considered supplements and should be registered as prescription or non-prescription ([[over-the-counter drug]]s) due to their potential side effects. The European Union, United States and Japan establish ULs.
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[[Dietary supplement]]s often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. [[Scientific evidence]] supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.
{{see also|Megavitamin therapy}}
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===Governmental regulation===
Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of ''foods'', not drugs. As a result, the manufacturer, and not the government, has the responsibility of ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the [[United States]], a dietary supplement is defined under the [[Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act]] of 1994. There is no FDA approval process for dietary supplements, and no requirement that manufacturers prove the safety or efficacy of supplements introduced before 1994. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] must rely on its Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements.
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In 2007, the US [[Code of Federal Regulations]] (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) in the manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Even though product registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements. In the European Union, the [[Food Supplements Directive]] requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription. For most vitamins, [[pharmacopoeia|pharmacopoeial standards]] have been established. In the United States, the [[United States Pharmacopeia]] (USP) sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the [[European Pharmacopoeia]] (Ph.Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market.
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==Naming==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; font-size:90%; margin-left:20px"
|+Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins
|- class="hintergrundfarbe6"
! Previous name
! Chemical name
! Reason for name change
|-
| Vitamin B<sub>4</sub>
|[[Adenine]]
| DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
|-
| Vitamin B<sub>8</sub>
|[[Adenylic acid]]
| DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
|-
| Vitamin B<sub>T</sub>
|[[Carnitine]]
| Synthesized in body
|-
| Vitamin F
|[[Essential fatty acid]]s
| Needed in large quantities (does<br /> not fit the definition of a vitamin).
|-
| Vitamin G
|[[Riboflavin]]
| Reclassified as [[B vitamins|Vitamin B<sub>2</sub>]]
|-
| Vitamin H
|[[Biotin]]
| Reclassified as [[B vitamins|Vitamin B<sub>7</sub>]]
|-
| Vitamin J
|[[Catechol]], [[Flavin group|Flavin]]
| Catechol nonessential; flavin reclassified<br /> as [[B vitamins|Vitamin B<sub>2</sub>]]
|-
| Vitamin L<sub>1</sub>
|[[Anthranilic acid]]
| Nonessential
|-
| Vitamin L<sub>2</sub>
|[[5′-Methylthioadenosine]]
| RNA metabolite; synthesized in body
|-
| Vitamin M or B<sub>c</sub>
|[[Folate]]
| Reclassified as [[B vitamins|Vitamin B<sub>9</sub>]]
|-
| Vitamin P
|[[Flavonoids]]
| Many compounds, not proven essential
|-
| Vitamin PP
|[[Niacin (nutrient)|Niacin]]
| Reclassified as [[B vitamins|Vitamin B<sub>3</sub>]]
|-
| Vitamin S
|[[Salicylic acid]]
| Nonessential
|-
| Vitamin U
|[[S-Methylmethionine]]
| Protein metabolite; synthesized in body
|}
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The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F–J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin&nbsp;B, which became a complex of vitamins.
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The Danish-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin&nbsp;K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the coagulation of blood following wounding (from the [[Danish language|Danish]] word ''Koagulation''). At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable. The table ''Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins'' lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.
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The missing numbered  B vitamins were reclassified or determined not to be vitamins. For example, B<sub>9</sub> is [[folic acid]] and five of the folates are in the range B<sub>11</sub> through B<sub>16</sub>. Others, such as [[4-Aminobenzoic acid|PABA]] (formerly B<sub>10</sub>), are biologically inactive, toxic, or with unclassifiable effects in humans, or not generally recognised as vitamins by science, such as the highest-numbered, which some [[naturopath]] practitioners call B<sub>21</sub> and B<sub>22</sub>. There are also lettered B substances (e.g., B<sub>m</sub>) listed at [[B vitamins]] that are not recognized as vitamins. There are other "D vitamins" now recognised as other substances, which some sources of the same type number up to D<sub>7</sub>. The controversial cancer treatment [[laetrile]] was at one point lettered as vitamin B<sub>17</sub>. There appears to be no consensus on the existence of substances that may have at one time been named as vitamins Q, R, T, V, W, X, Y or Z.
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"Vitamin N" is a term popularized for the mental health benefits of spending time in nature settings. "Vitamin I" is slang among athletes for frequent/daily consumption of [[ibuprofen]] as a pain-relieving treatment.
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== See also ==
{{Portal|Food}}
*[[Vitamin deficiency]]
*[[Hypervitaminosis]]
*[[Human nutrition]]
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== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
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== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
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== External links ==
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{{EB1922 Poster|Vitamine}}
*[https://www.uthfa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/rda.pdf USDA RDA chart in PDF format]
*[http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/table/ref_vitam_tbl_e.html Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes Reference Chart for Vitamins]
*[http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/Health_Information/Vitamin_and_Mineral_Supplement_Fact_Sheets.aspx NIH Office of Dietary Supplements: Fact Sheets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916005417/http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/Health_Information/Vitamin_and_Mineral_Supplement_Fact_Sheets.aspx |date=16 September 2008 }}
* {{cite web |title=Vitamins and minerals |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/ |website=nhs.uk |language=en |date=23 October 2017}}
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{{Vitamin}}
{{Food chemistry}}
{{Nutritional pathology}}
{{Dietary supplement}}
{{Authority control}}
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{{二次利用|date=10 January 2024}}
[[Category:Vitamins| ]]
[[Category:Essential nutrients]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
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